% This file is part of the
% The Online BRT Planning Guide
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% DO NOT EDIT THIS FILE MANUALLY!
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% This file has been automatically generated from its sources
% using the OBRT tool:
%  tool version: 364c3e5
%  haxe version: 3.4.0
%  runtime: JS
%  platform: Linux

\chapter{20}{Vehicles}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 1-7: code points 1-30

\quotation{Don’t worry, sweetie, don’t worry! Nobody in New York notices a bus until it’s about to hit them! (Samantha in “Sex and the City”)}{Kim Cattrall, actress, 1956-}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 5-7: code points 1-30

\emphasis{Overview}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 10-10: code points 1-10

Few decisions in the development of a BRT system invoke more debate than the choice of vehicle-propulsion technology and vehicle manufacturer. Even though BRT is far more than just a bus, the choice of vehicle technology is important, as it will strongly influence the system’s performance.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 13-15: code points 1-80

Regardless of whether the vehicle procurement is public or private, the technical specifications of the vehicle selected will mostly have to be set by the system’s designers, so that they interface properly with the infrastructure. The current common practice is for the public agency to set vehicle standards while the private sector actually purchases and operates the vehicles. Thus, while a standard set of basic requirements must be met, many decisions, such as vehicle manufacturer, are actually left to the operating companies. The public agency will likely develop a detailed set of vehicle specifications that each operator will be required to fulfill. However, it is up to the vehicle operator, who is paying for the vehicles, to determine how to best meet the specifications. For example, within Bogotá’s TransMilenio system, different operating companies have selected different vehicle manufacturers. However, thanks to the detailed specifications, from the perspective of the customer, all of the vehicles look and operate identically. This commonality is important to creating and preserving a clear system identity.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 18-28: code points 1-94

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/65ac4f62090509e4b3d1c846a8495c8db97337b5.jpeg}
		\fignote{1}{The sophistication and attractiveness of a technology are factors to consider, but so are basic issues such as maintenance and operational-cost efficiency.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-sophistication-and-attractiveness-of-a-technology-are-factors-to-consider-but-so-are-basic-issues-such-as-maintenance-and-operational-cost-efficiency}}{Advanced Public Transport Systems (APTS).}
	}
\fi

Operators purchasing BRT vehicles must weigh many factors in choosing a fuel and propulsion-system technology. Beyond basic vehicle prices, a host of issues must be considered. Will the vehicle technology meet required emission standards? Will the size and design of the vehicle fulfill capacity requirements? Does the technology have a history of operating consistently in developing-city conditions? Does the technology require maintenance personnel with highly specialized skills? Are spare parts for the technology expensive and difficult to obtain in a developing city? Are special refueling stations required for the technology? Is the technology selected financially viable? An attractive, sophisticated vehicle technology may entice decision-makers to make an instinctive choice, but nevertheless, basic questions about maintenance, spare parts, and operational costs should be an integral part of the decision-making process (Figure 20.2).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/vehicles.src: lines 36-46: code points 1-0

\section{1}{Decision-making Matrix}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:decision-making-matrix}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 3-69: code points 1-32

\quotation{You can’t make decisions based on fear and the possibility of what might happen.}{Michelle Obama, first lady of the United States, 1964-}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-56

Vehicle-fleet technology selection, provision, and operation are complex and depend on legal, operational, institutional, and strategic factors particular to each individual case. Figure 20.2 displays a recommended methodology for vehicle selection and provision mechanisms.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 8-10: code points 1-59

\ifxetex
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	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/0e79a123f235ce667747650020abf1b4b1ea4c49.jpeg}
		\fignote{2}{Decision-making process for vehicle selection.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:decision-making-process-for-vehicle-selection}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

Following through the four main activities described in Figure 20.2 can guarantee that the characteristics of the chosen vehicle will meet all the operational requirements necessary to ensure the system’s financial viability\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 14-16: code points 1-42

The first and most important activity involves identifying the project’s specific needs and requirements for its fleet. Most of this analysis should already have been done in the operational-design process, covered in detail in Chapter 4: Demand Analysis and Chapter 8: Traffic-impact Assessment. Vehicle characteristics should not be defined based only on aesthetic or political interests, but must be defined based on optimizing the system’s operations.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 18-22: code points 1-24

It would be a serious mistake to select the vehicle prior to performing the operational analysis. Selecting the vehicle type prior to defining the system’s operational design can result in either purchasing far more expensive vehicles than is necessary or vehicles too small to provide the required capacity without serious overcrowding or busway congestion. Table 20.1 summarizes many of the factors to consider in deciding on a technology and a manufacturer.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 24-28: code points 1-35

\tabletitle{1}{Decision Factors for Choosing a Vehicle Technology}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:decision-factors-for-choosing-a-vehicle-technology}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=9\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=20\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Category& \color{gray75}\bfseries Factor \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Cost&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Purchase cost;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 36-36: code points 6-25
	\color{gray50}\item Maintenance costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 36-36: code points 26-49
	\color{gray50}\item Re-sale value in local market;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 36-37: code points 50-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 36-37: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Vehicle features&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Customer capacity;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 39-39: code points 6-29
	\color{gray50}\item Interior design options;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 39-39: code points 30-59
	\color{gray50}\item Aesthetics;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 39-40: code points 60-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 39-40: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Manufacturer support&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Manufacturer support office in country;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 42-42: code points 6-50
	\color{gray50}\item Capabilities of manufacturing technical assistance staff;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 42-42: code points 51-113
	\color{gray50}\item Warranty coverage and conditions;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 42-43: code points 114-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 42-43: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Robustness&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Track record of technology in a developing city;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-45: code points 6-59
	\color{gray50}\item Degree to which specialized skills are required for maintenance and operation;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-45: code points 60-143
	\color{gray50}\item Feasibility of making repairs on the road;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-45: code points 144-191
	\color{gray50}\item Expected percentage of up-time in operation;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-45: code points 192-241
	\color{gray50}\item Reliability;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-45: code points 242-259
	\color{gray50}\item Vehicle longevity;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-46: code points 260-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 45-46: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Re-fueling&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Re-fueling time;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 48-48: code points 6-27
	\color{gray50}\item Type and cost of required re-fueling stations;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 48-48: code points 28-79
	\color{gray50}\item Availability of refueling stations;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 48-49: code points 80-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 48-49: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Safety&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Strength of body structure;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-51: code points 6-38
	\color{gray50}\item Chassis design;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-51: code points 39-59
	\color{gray50}\item Brake system effectiveness;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-51: code points 60-92
	\color{gray50}\item Anti-fire protection;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-51: code points 93-119
	\color{gray50}\item Emergency devices;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-52: code points 120-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 51-52: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Environment&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Local emissions (NOx, SOx, CO, PM, toxics);% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 54-54: code points 6-54
	\color{gray50}\item Global emissions (CO2, N2O4, CH4);% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 54-54: code points 55-94
	\color{gray50}\item Noise levels;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 54-54: code points 95-113
	\color{gray50}\item Other waste products (e.g., solid waste, waste oil, etc.);% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 54-55: code points 114-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 54-55: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Compliance with local regulations&
	\color{gray50}\begin{itemize}
	\color{gray50}\item Maximum weight per axle;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 57-57: code points 6-35
	\color{gray50}\item Height, width, and length restrictions.% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 57-58: code points 36-0
	\color{gray50}\end{itemize}
	\color{gray50}% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 57-58: code points 6-0
	\color{gray50}
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 30-58: code points 1-9

Once the principal system requirements and needs have been identified, there remain many additional technical considerations that need to be decided before finalizing the technical specification. In general, the basic decision areas for the vehicle include:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 60-62: code points 1-49

\begin{enumerate}
\item Vehicle size;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 64-65: code points 1-0
\item Chassis and body configuration;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 65-66: code points 1-0
\item Interior design options;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 66-67: code points 1-0
\item Fuel and propulsion technology;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 67-68: code points 1-0
\item Aesthetic options;% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 68-69: code points 1-0
\item Vehicle docking options.% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 69-69: code points 1-32
\end{enumerate}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/201-decision-making-matrix.src: lines 64-69: code points 1-32

\section{2}{Vehicle Size}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-size}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 3-161: code points 1-44

\quotation{It’s not the size of the dog in the fight, it’s the size of the fight in the dog.}{Mark Twain, author, 1835–1910}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-31

The size and required customer capacity of the vehicle are largely determined by the modeling analysis conducted at the outset of the project. The analysis process will have determined a projected customer volume for a particular corridor. Vehicle capacities, in conjunction with service frequency, are the primary factors that will help achieve a required volume of customers.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 8-11: code points 1-70

Table 20.2 summarizes the various vehicle-length options, along with the associated customer capacity. The actual customer capacity depends upon a range of factors, including interior layout, the number of seated versus standing customers, and cultural norms regarding the space required per customer.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 13-15: code points 1-95

\tabletitle{2}{Vehicle Options and Customer Capacities}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:vehicle-options-and-customer-capacities}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=9\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=14\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Vehicle type& \color{gray75}\bfseries Vehicle length (meters)& \color{gray75}\bfseries Capacity (customers per vehicle) \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Bi-articulated&
	\color{gray50}24&
	\color{gray50}240–270 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Articulated&
	\color{gray50}18.5&
	\color{gray50}120–170 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Tandem-axle&
	\color{gray50}15&
	\color{gray50}80–100 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Double decker&
	\color{gray50}12–15&
	\color{gray50}80–130 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Standard&
	\color{gray50}12&
	\color{gray50}60–80 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Midi-bus&
	\color{gray50}6&
	\color{gray50}25–35 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Mini-bus (vans)&
	\color{gray50}3&
	\color{gray50}10–16 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 17-50: code points 1-9

\subsection{1}{Calculating the Optimum Vehicle Size}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-size:subSection:calculating-the-optimum-vehicle-size}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 52-97: code points 1-80

The methodology for calculating the appropriate vehicle type in any given situation has already been put forward in Chapter 6: Service Planning. Equation 20.1 summarizes the principal calculation required to determine the optimum vehicle size.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 54-56: code points 1-38

Eq. 20.1 Determining Required Vehicle Capacity\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 58-58: code points 1-46

Where:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 64-64: code points 1-6

C\textsubscript{b} = Customer capacity of the vehicle, in passengers per vehicle\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 66-66: code points 1-70

C\textsubscript{corridor} = Number of people the corridor can transport, in passengers per hour per direction (pphpd)\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 68-68: code points 1-107

L = Load factor, is the average occupancy of the vehicles, expressed as a percent\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 70-70: code points 1-81

F = Service frequency, is the number of vehicles per hour\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 72-72: code points 1-57

SB = Number of independent stopping bays in each station\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 74-74: code points 1-56

The so-called “optimum” vehicle size, though, may vary from corridor to corridor. One option is to operate different-sized vehicles in different corridors of the city. However, this lack of commonality can be disadvantageous for several reasons. First, purchasing different vehicle types will tend to reduce economies of scale in procurement and lead to higher-overall vehicle costs. Second, different vehicle types may have different maintenance needs and different sets of spare parts, and thus again undermining overall economies of scale. Third, managing a fleet of different vehicle types reduces operational flexibility in using vehicles in different corridors, especially when breakdowns and other maintenance requirements may take some vehicles offline for a period of time. Fourth, different-sized vehicles means that station sizes will need to accommodate multiple types of vehicles.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 76-84: code points 1-58

For all these reasons, it is typically preferred to choose a single vehicle type that can serve the spectrum of trunk-line routes. Likewise, one or two smaller vehicle types can be chosen for the feeder services.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 86-88: code points 1-9

A common mistake involves assuming that larger vehicles are somehow better. In truth, the best vehicle size is one that allows for a cost-effective operation for the given volumes and service frequency. If a large vehicle requires ten-minute headways so that the optimum load levels can be achieved, then choosing a lower-capacity vehicle might be more convenient. Customers prefer headways in the range of one to four minutes. Long wait times will ultimately lead customers to choose alternative modes of transport, such as private vehicles. It is important that the operational design include a preference analysis that studies time valuation by customers in such a way that the optimum vehicle type and fleet numbers can be chosen, and that an appropriate quality level can be achieved with the allocated budget.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 90-97: code points 1-80

\subsection{2}{Bi-articulated, Articulated, and Standard-sized Vehicles}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-size:subSection:bi-articulated-articulated-and-standard-sized-vehicles}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 99-127: code points 1-27

High-volume systems (over seven thousand customers per hour per direction) will likely require both large-sized (articulate or bi-articulated) vehicles and high-frequency service (Figures 20.3 and 20.4). Lower-volume systems should also strive for high-frequency service, but obviously with smaller vehicle types. Systems in Brisbane, Australia, and Jakarta, Indonesia, operate trunk corridors with twelve-meter standard-sized vehicles (Figure 20.5). The smaller size does not mean these systems are inferior to cities operating with larger vehicles. Instead, the size may just be a reflection of the appropriate configuration for the particular demand characteristics.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 101-107: code points 1-42

\ifxetex
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\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/24dc48bdef5c16038a2603e19a07453f6870746e.jpeg}
		\fignote{3}{In Curitiba, 24-meter bi-articulated vehicles are utilized on trunk corridors.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-curitiba-24-meter-bi-articulated-vehicles-are-utilized-on-trunk-corridors}}{Volvo Bus Corporation.}
	}
\fi

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	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/a07954149ca5c314341e1cfac2ccd672e6640e0c.jpeg}
		\fignote{4}{Bogotá’s system uses a mix of 18-meter articulated and 24-meter bi-articulated vehicles.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:bogots-system-uses-a-mix-of-18-meter-articulated-and-24-meter-bi-articulated-vehicles}}{TransMilenio SA.}
	}
\fi

\ifxetex
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	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/4a7cb342f86478aec26fb91edb13648ec95bfcd9.jpeg}
		\fignote{5}{In Brisbane, Australia, trunk corridors are served by standard 12-meter vehicles.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-brisbane-australia-trunk-corridors-are-served-by-standard-12-meter-vehicles}}{Queensland Transport.}
	}
\fi

While the numerous vehicle manufacturers offer a wide range of options, consideration of market availability is also a key factor. Engaging in informal discussions with vehicle manufacturers at the outset can help highlight the availability of different product features. Clearly, the vehicle specifications should not be designed around any one manufacturer, but a broad understanding of the existing options from manufacturers can help shape the analysis.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 116-120: code points 1-28

Along the same lines, the number of manufacturers providing a particular vehicle type is a legitimate consideration. A single-sourced vehicle will tend to increase costs due to the lack of a competitive manufacturing environment. As an example, currently only one major manufacturer produces a bi-articulated vehicle. Thus, if this type of vehicle is chosen the bidding process is more likely to be less competitive. The lack of competition ultimately results in higher prices for operators, which will then translate into higher customer fares.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 122-127: code points 1-27

\subsection{3}{Double-decker Vehicles}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-size:subSection:double-decker-vehicles}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 129-154: code points 1-105

Increasing the length of the vehicle is just one way of increasing customer capacity. Adding another customer level with a double-decker configuration is another option that is occasionally utilized. Despite being less popular at a global level, double-decker vehicles have successfully created a niche market in such cities as Singapore, London, and Hong Kong (Figure 20.6).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 131-134: code points 1-65

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/5de0415c09361226830b131ec2bbcf7a23178690.jpeg}
		\fignote{6}{In Hong Kong, the double-decker represents an iconic image for the city.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-hong-kong-the-double-decker-represents-an-iconic-image-for-the-city}}{Volvo Bus Corporation.}
	}
\fi

The double decker has been successful in creating an iconic image for cities. Double-deckers can generate an intriguing image to a public-transport system and can be quite popular when applied to tourist routes, as the vehicle’s upper deck offers a great vantage point for sightseeing.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 138-140: code points 1-73

However, double-deckers can bring many complications and additional costs. The costs of adding a second floor to the vehicle are not entirely devoted to customer space. A significant amount of space is consumed by the stairway on both decks of the vehicle. The stairway also creates potentially troublesome difficulties for customers, particularly during boarding and alighting. Moving up and down the stairway as the vehicle moves can be dangerous. The width of the stairway also makes two-way customer movement difficult. The net effect is dramatically lengthened customer boarding and alighting times. London has phased out its iconic “Routemaster,” in part due to the severe injuries and even deaths resulting from customers falling from either the interior stairway or the back alighting step.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 142-149: code points 1-61

Double-deckers are also not particularly suitable for high-volume operations where customers are frequently boarding and alighting. Double-deckers are best used on conventional commuter routes where most of the boarding and alighting takes place at a few station points in the center of the city and then again at a distant suburban location. To date, double-decker vehicles have not been utilized in a full BRT system.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 151-154: code points 1-105

\subsection{4}{Fleet Size}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-size:subSection:fleet-size}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 156-161: code points 1-44

The vehicle size will impact the number of vehicles needed to meet the demand. Depending on that decision, the fleet size may need to be adjusted and is determined entirely by the operational plan. A method for calculating the fleet size needed based on projected customer demand and the needs for a reserve fleet is outlined in Chapter 6: Service Planning.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/202-vehicle-size.src: lines 158-161: code points 1-44

\section{3}{Vehicle Floor Height}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-floor-height}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 3-154: code points 1-9

\quotation{A lot of people are afraid of heights. Not me. I’m afraid of widths.}{Stephen Wright, comedian, actor, writer, and producer, 1955-}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-62

After the physical length, the floor height tends to be one of the most crucial physical characteristics of the vehicle. The floor height will affect decisions on boarding and alighting strategies, customer convenience, vehicle costs, and maintenance costs.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 8-10: code points 1-50

In general, there are a full range of options including low floor, semi-low floor, and high-floor vehicles. With any of these options, a level (step-free) boarding is possible. Most of the well-known Latin American systems, such as Bogotá and Pereira, Colombia, Curitiba and Goiânia, Brazil, and Guayaquil and Quito, Ecuador operate high-floor vehicles with platform-level boarding.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 12-15: code points 1-65

Vehicle chassis tend to be produced in certain standard floor heights. Two of the most common interior floor heights are 38 to 40 centimeters (low-floor) and 90 centimeters (high-floor). There are also low-floor models with an interior floor height of less than 38 to 40 centimeters.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 17-19: code points 1-71

\subsection{1}{Low-floor Versus High-floor Vehicles}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-floor-height:subSection:low-floor-versus-high-floor-vehicles}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 21-154: code points 1-9

From the perspective of BRT systems, the debate over low-floor versus high-floor is somewhat secondary to the preference for platform-level boarding and alighting. Steps of any type will slow dwell times, as well as make a system off-limits to many of the physically disabled. Even low-floor vehicles, if not at level but still requiring a small step up or down, can slow boarding times, as well as create a usage barrier to persons in wheelchairs.\par
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\ifxetex
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/fabfc7c299b497c49ec051a03960caa34f42e23f.jpeg}
		\fignote{7}{GFH 960 mm maximum Long Bus; Rear Engine High Floor\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:gfh-960-mm-maximum-long-bus-rear-engine-high-floor}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/44c1755049e8f3c39a67db7b738d278ea8c393cd.jpeg}
		\fignote{8}{GFH 960 mm maximum Short Bus; 1,150 mm maximum Medium Bus; Front Engine High Floor;\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:gfh-960-mm-maximum-short-bus-1150-mm-maximum-medium-bus-front-engine-high-floor}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d8ac696bc233302e51fd9b542ffcfe3757a8119a.jpeg}
		\fignote{9}{GFH 360 mm maximum; Low Entry; Short and Long Bus;\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:gfh-360-mm-maximum-low-entry-short-and-long-bus}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

Fig. 20.7, 20.8, and 20.9 The distance from the ground to the vehicle floor differs depending on vehicle length and engine location.\par
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Attempting to operate stepped boarding and alighting in high-volume operations can be detrimental to system performance, regardless of floor height. Both low-floor and high-floor vehicles can be adapted for usage with platform-level boarding. The Transantiago system in Santiago, Chile, elected to operate low-floor (20-centimeter) vehicles without platform-level boarding. In conjunction with the decision to have on-board fare verification, the result has been serious station delays (Figure 20.10). Likewise, the Brisbane, Australia, system also combines low-floor vehicles and on-board fare verification (Figure 20.11). While these types of systems may provide an adequate service, they cannot match the operational performance levels of cities utilizing platform-level boarding.\par
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\ifxetex
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	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/011d52be0fd6a8d0e9d79fbd6ba013b9572f4357.jpeg}
		\fignote{10}{Low-floor vehicles without platform-level entry and pre-board fare verification can result in longer dwell times and not actually provide access to the physically disabled, as shown in this image from Santiago, Chile\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:low-floor-vehicles-without-platform-level-entry-and-pre-board-fare-verification-can-result-in-longer-dwell-times-and-not-actually-provide-access-to-the-physically-disabled-as-shown-in-this-image-from-santiago-chile}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/c0cf4a39df324832162a212d535dd819b445d260.jpeg}
		\fignote{11}{Low-floor vehicles without platform-level entry and pre-board fare verification can result in longer dwell times and not actually provide access to the physically disabled, as shown in this images from Brisbane, Australia\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:low-floor-vehicles-without-platform-level-entry-and-pre-board-fare-verification-can-result-in-longer-dwell-times-and-not-actually-provide-access-to-the-physically-disabled-as-shown-in-this-images-from-brisbane-australia}}{Queensland Transport.}
	}
\fi

Low-floor vehicles have predominantly been deployed in conventional bus systems in developed nations in Europe and North America. These systems generally operate without closed stations, platform-level boarding, or pre-board fare verification. In such cases, low-floor vehicles provide a somewhat better physical image and make boarding easier in comparison to high-step entry.\par
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As low-floor bus technology becomes more affordable and widely available in developing countries, it has become a matter of debate whether new BRT systems should be designed for use with high- or low-floor vehicles, and whether the high BRT platform is necessary or desirable.\par
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The principal advantages of low-floor vehicles relate to the physical image of the vehicles, as well as some aspects of operational flexibility. The principal advantages of high-floor vehicles relate to the procurement and maintenance costs of the vehicles Further, high-floor vehicles in conjunction with platform-level boarding actually offer smaller dwell times and greater access for the physically disabled than low-floor vehicles without platform-level boarding.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/1a2574202db3b09074f61b4302bc8b7488afcf0b.jpeg}
		\fignote{12}{High-floor vehicles in conjunction with platform-level boarding have been the cost-effective solution for most high-quality systems in Latin America, such as the system in Belo Horizonte, Brazil.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:high-floor-vehicles-in-conjunction-with-platform-level-boarding-have-been-the-cost-effective-solution-for-most-high-quality-systems-in-latin-america-such-as-the-system-in-belo-horizonte-brazil}}{ITDP.}
	}
\fi

Low-floor vehicles offer greater operational flexibility since the vehicles can operate with and without boarding platforms. For BRT systems where the vehicles are likely to operate both on trunk corridors and in direct service, where no boarding platforms will be available, the low floor height helps increase customer boarding and alighting speeds during the curbside boarding sections of the route\par
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In instances where the trunk vehicle operates with two-sided doorways, the low-floor design can ease customer movements within the vehicle. If a vehicle operates with high-floor on one-side (median station) and low-floor on the other (curbside station), then there will be steps inside the vehicle. This configuration is utilized in Porto Alegre, Brazil.\par
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Low-floor vehicles can also be preferred for aesthetic and urban design reasons. The 50-centimeter difference in vehicle floor height means that the station height is reduced by 50 centimeters. This height reduction can help to mitigate concerns over roadway severance.\par
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However, low-floor buses have their drawbacks. Being closer to the ground, the buses typically incur more structural stress and thus have higher maintenance costs. Road surfaces must be maintained at a very high level for low-floor bus routes in order to avoid and minimize any potential vehicle damage. These problems will be made worse if flooding is a risk along the BRT corridor. Small imperfections in the road surface will also tend to make the ride less smooth and comfortable for the users.\par
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Low-floor vehicles have somewhat lower customer capacity in comparison with high-floor vehicles, because the wheel wells encroach on the customer-seating area. Low-floor vehicles also always have stairs inside them, as the rear vehicle seats are elevated above the wheels. This constrains customer circulation and limits access for all. Standard tow trucks are not always able to move low-floor vehicles when there are mechanical problems, so specialized towing vehicles are required.\par
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Low-floor vehicles also somewhat complicate preventing fare evasion. With a ramped-entry high-floor vehicle, the height of the platform acts as a natural barrier against individuals trying to enter from outside the station. With low-floor vehicles, fare evaders can sneak between the station and the vehicle, and then enter the vehicle with relatively little difficulty. A way to avoid this is to install platform screen doors.\par
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Low-floor vehicles also typically cost 20 to 30 percent more than standard models, and in some cases, upwards of 100 percent more (as is the case in India). Manufacturing low-floor vehicles requires the use of modern manufacturing technology, which is not always available in developing countries. In some cases, this means that the use of a low-floor vehicle will affect whether the vehicles can be assembled locally or will need to be imported, and thus have a significant impact on the cost of both procurement and maintenance. Table 20.3 summarizes the various trade-offs between high-floor and low-floor vehicles.\par
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\tabletitle{3}{Comparison between high-floor and low-floor vehicles.}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:comparison-between-high-floor-and-low-floor-vehicles}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=9\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=14\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Factor& \color{gray75}\bfseries High-floor Vehicle& \color{gray75}\bfseries Low-floor Vehicle \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Purchase cost&
	\color{gray50}Lower purchase costs&
	\color{gray50}More complex chassis results in a purchase cost approximately 20 to 100\% higher than high-floor vehicles\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maintenance cost&
	\color{gray50}Distance from roadway impacts reduces maintenance costs&
	\color{gray50}Higher maintenance costs (10\%to 20\%) due to proximity to roadway imperfections\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Urban design aesthetics&
	\color{gray50}Station profile will be 50 centimeters higher&
	\color{gray50}Station profile will be 50 centimeters lower and thus will somewhat reduce visual severance\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Customer convenience&
	\color{gray50}High-floor vehicles with platform-level boarding eases boarding and alighting and has better circulation for all&
	\color{gray50}If at-level boarding, then access for all, but internal circulation compromised by stairs. Often, low-floor stations are not at-level, but still require a step up, making wheelchair entry difficult\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Vehicle towing&
	\color{gray50}In case of breakdown, high-floor vehicles can be towed by a conventional tow truck&
	\color{gray50}Many low-floor vehicles require a special type of towing vehicle\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Fare evasion&
	\color{gray50}Provides a better natural defense against fare evasion&
	\color{gray50}More susceptible to fare evasion\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Vibrations&
	\color{gray50}Higher suspension somewhat reduces roadway bumps and vibrations&
	\color{gray50}Somewhat more susceptible to roadway vibrations and thus making reading potentially more difficult\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Seating&
	\color{gray50}Little to no impact on seating arrangement from the wheel-wells&
	\color{gray50}Some impact on the height and number of seats due to the wheel-well\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/203vehicle-floor-height.src: lines 113-154: code points 1-9

\section{4}{Vehicle Interior Design}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-interior-design}
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\quotation{Art has to move you, and design does not; unless it’s a good design for a bus.}{David Hockney, painter and designer, 1937-}
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From a customer perspective, the interior of the vehicle is far more important than the mechanical components propelling it. The interior design will directly affect comfort, customer capacity, security, and safety.\par
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A basic starting point for developing the interior design is to determine the amount of seated and standing space in the vehicle. The amount of space dedicated to standing areas and to seated areas will be based upon expected customer flows, especially accounting for peak capacities. In general, customers will have a preference for as much seating as possible. However, the operational economics of the system may require a certain number of standing customers, especially during peak periods, in order to deliver an affordable fare.\par
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A sharp peak period will tend to force a greater number of standing customers. However, there are also other considerations. If travel distances are relatively long in the city (e.g., an average trip distance over fifteen kilometers), then it will be quite tiring for customers to be standing. By contrast, if average trip distances are relatively short (e.g., under five kilometers), then standing is less of an issue (Figures 20.13 and 20.14).\par
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\ifxetex
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/2d8401e4f86e535a7cafa3c1cc981dfcd5a4df88.jpeg}
		\fignote{13}{In cities, such as Quito and Bogotá, with relatively short average-trip distances, there can be more tolerance for having many standing customers. In cities with long travel distances, it can be quite tiring to customers.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-cities-such-as-quito-and-bogot-with-relatively-short-average-trip-distances-there-can-be-more-tolerance-for-having-many-standing-customers-in-cities-with-long-travel-distances-it-can-be-quite-tiring-to-customers}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

\ifxetex
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	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d8675410a6949e4295c5af68a95181814936949a.jpeg}
		\fignote{14}{In cities, such as Quito and Bogotá, with relatively short average-trip distances, there can be more tolerance for having many standing customers. In cities with long travel distances, it can be quite tiring to customers.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-cities-such-as-quito-and-bogot-with-relatively-short-average-trip-distances-there-can-be-more-tolerance-for-having-many-standing-customers-in-cities-with-long-travel-distances-it-can-be-quite-tiring-to-customers}}{Carlos Pardo.}
	}
\fi

However, even in cases of relatively short trip distances, the value of a seat to a customer should not be underestimated. After a day of work or school, many patrons are not pleased to stand for even a few kilometers (Figure 20.15). Every effort should thus be made to provide sufficient seating and\slash{}or manage operations to minimize standing.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/52d16a1da1c515dbda65e9361bfd2abe8c117b31.jpeg}
		\fignote{15}{Customers in Bogotá make their own seating on the floor of the vehicle. Every effort should be made to maximize seating to the extent possible.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:customers-in-bogot-make-their-own-seating-on-the-floor-of-the-vehicle-every-effort-should-be-made-to-maximize-seating-to-the-extent-possible}}{Carlos Pardo.}
	}
\fi

A standard 18-meter articulated vehicle may have anywhere from forty to fifty-five seated customers, depending upon the seating and doorway configuration. With more doorways, there will be less space for seating. The width of aisleways will also be part of this equation. To lessen the discomfort of standing, quality holding devices (poles, straps, etc.) should be provided. Table 20.5 shows how the dimensions of the customer areas vary between vehicles sizes and engine location.\par
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\tabletitle{4}{Dimensions of the customer compartment from the Mexico City Manual on Safety, Accessibility, Comfort, and Manufacturing of Buses}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:dimensions-of-the-customer-compartment-from-the-mexico-city-manual-on-safety-accessibility-comfort-and-manufacturing-of-buses}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=6\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries DESCRIPTION& \color{gray75}\bfseries SHORT VEHICLE& \color{gray75}\bfseries & \color{gray75}\bfseries MEDIUM AND LONG VEHICLE& \color{gray75}\bfseries LONG VEHICLE \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}HIGH-FLOOR&
	\color{gray50}LOW-ENTRY&
	\color{gray50}HIGH-FLOOR&
	\color{gray50}LOW-ENTRY\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Distance from floor to ceiling&
	\color{gray50}2,000 mm minimum, measured in aisle&
	\color{gray50}2,250 mm minimum, measured in aisle&
	\color{gray50}2,000 mm minimum, measured in aisle&
	\color{gray50}2,250 mm minimum, measured in aisle\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Width of customer compartment&
	\color{gray50}2,280 mm minimum, measured at 800 mm height from the floor&
	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}2,320 mm minimum, measured at 800 mm height from the floor&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
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Seating facing to the sides, rather than to the front, can be effective in opening up space for standing customers (Figure 20.16). Front-facing single seats can also be preferred by customers who wish to maintain a degree of privacy. Double seats can create difficulties when customers prefer the aisle seat in order to be more accessible to the exit. In such circumstances, other customers must step over the aisle-seated customer to access the window seat. In other cases, customers may place belongings on one of the double seats in order to prevent others from sitting alongside. These circumstances can create conflicts between customers. Instead, good design practices should be employed to avoid potentially awkward customer situations.\par
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\ifxetex
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/de163579f8b48ee2590b6a6a95174a09d8887ac1.jpeg}
		\fignote{16}{Side-facing seating, as shown in this example from Jakarta, Indonesia, will tend to maximize space for standing customers, and thus such a configuration will maximize overall customer capacity per vehicle.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:side-facing-seating-as-shown-in-this-example-from-jakarta-indonesia-will-tend-to-maximize-space-for-standing-customers-and-thus-such-a-configuration-will-maximize-overall-customer-capacity-per-vehicle}}{Karl Otta, courtesy of GIZ.}
	}
\fi

The vehicle’s internal layout must comply with legal restrictions and also consider the number and location of doors in the vehicle, in such a way that internal circulation, handicap access, and access at stops is readily available in the least amount of time possible.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/8c7680176dd498e6b657231493755f294824cccc.jpeg}
		\fignote{17}{Example of customer configuration for a short vehicle.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:example-of-customer-configuration-for-a-short-vehicle}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/1356a9cab9c96ccd9b38daa5e5ffbde4030344dc.jpeg}
		\fignote{18}{Example of customer configuration for medium and long vehicles.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:example-of-customer-configuration-for-medium-and-long-vehicles}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

An 18-meter articulated vehicle will typically have either three or four sets of double doorways. There is a trade-off with each configuration. With only three doorways, there will be more space for seating. However, four doorways are considerably more efficient in allowing rapid boarding and alighting (Figure 20.20). As always, much depends on the local context to determine which trade-off is the most important.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/0085fd8c102cf6fd106117e2e21103e8daaaac59.png}
		\fignote{19}{The aisle located between the doors in all types of vehicles must not have double seats on both sides.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-aisle-located-between-the-doors-in-all-types-of-vehicles-must-not-have-double-seats-on-both-sides}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d5d871cbb232b307533933cc195bffcd88f13308.jpeg}
		\fignote{20}{Bogotá utilizes a four-door configuration that helps to reduce boarding and alighting times.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:bogot-utilizes-a-four-door-configuration-that-helps-to-reduce-boarding-and-alighting-times}}{TransMilenio TM.}
	}
\fi

Special arrangements should also be made to cater to the needs of physically disabled and elderly customers. The station entry ramps are an important feature, but likewise, adequate interior space for wheelchairs is key. Additionally, the safe attachment of wheelchairs to a fixed interior structure may be required. Space for wheelchairs can also double as standing capacity during peak periods (Figure 20.24). See Chapter 30: Universal Access for more information about universal access.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/4242f9856a105cc5b9e79f7bc573c31791a46e0a.png}
		\fignote{21}{Wheelchair dimensions and the anthropometric measurements indicated in the preceding diagrams should be considered in sizing the backrest.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:wheelchair-dimensions-and-the-anthropometric-measurements-indicated-in-the-preceding-diagrams-should-be-considered-in-sizing-the-backrest}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/8af4b688602c7581b15c4ba45840ceaac753c030.png}
		\fignote{22}{Wheelchair dimensions and the anthropometric measurements indicated in the preceding diagrams should be considered in sizing the backrest.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:wheelchair-dimensions-and-the-anthropometric-measurements-indicated-in-the-preceding-diagrams-should-be-considered-in-sizing-the-backrest}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/c796901f3b0de5a27ed68191c23e8a854a1dbb15.png}
		\fignote{23}{Wheelchair dimensions and the anthropometric measurements indicated in the preceding diagrams should be considered in sizing the backrest.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:wheelchair-dimensions-and-the-anthropometric-measurements-indicated-in-the-preceding-diagrams-should-be-considered-in-sizing-the-backrest}}{ITDP}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/4bd0a6e2bdf844a748ef3c5b1eaabb59fc4c0683.jpeg}
		\fignote{24}{Space allocated for special-needs customers, such as those with wheelchairs, can also be useful in meeting standing capacity during peak periods.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:space-allocated-for-special-needs-customers-such-as-those-with-wheelchairs-can-also-be-useful-in-meeting-standing-capacity-during-peak-periods}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

Bicycles can also be safely and effectively secured inside the vehicle. With the ramped entryways of BRT vehicles, bicycles can easily be brought on board, especially during non-peak periods. The space permitted for bicycles can also be an effective open space for standing customers during peak times. Unfortunately, the bicycle is needlessly banned from many bus systems.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/204-vehicle-interior-design.src: lines 122-125: code points 1-70

In typical conditions, a seated customer consumes as much as twice the space as that required by a standing customer. However, the amount of personal space each customer requires can vary between different cultures. In Latin America, it is somewhat acceptable to tolerate relatively packed conditions. Knowledge of local preferences in conjunction with stated preference surveys can help evaluate the best spatial arrangement. The interior of the Bogotá TransMilenio vehicles is designed to a standard of as many as seven customers per square meter. In other cultures this level of crowding would be completely unacceptable.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/204-vehicle-interior-design.src: lines 127-132: code points 1-108

The type of seating can greatly affect customer comfort. Cloth and padded seating offers additional comfort to customers (Figure 20.25). However, there are cost and maintenance issues to consider with these types of seats. While plastic seating is not as comfortable, such seating is less costly and is easier to clean and maintain.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/204-vehicle-interior-design.src: lines 134-137: code points 1-29

Special panoramic windows allow better views of the external environment. Panoramic windows offer a larger visible area for customer views (Figure 20.26). Being able to see upcoming stations and station name plates is especially important for customers unfamiliar with a particular corridor. Clean and highly visible windows also make the journey more enjoyable for customers who wish to view the outside environment.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/204-vehicle-interior-design.src: lines 139-142: code points 1-108

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/f777e2b3113afd4a0c735163971cd59b93e78af3.jpeg}
		\fignote{25}{Cloth seating can enhance the customer experience, but may be harder to maintain.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:cloth-seating-can-enhance-the-customer-experience-but-may-be-harder-to-maintain}}{Advanced Public Transport Systems.}
	}
\fi

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/96069550e9c3bc67639e8a23b03c8aad35738d0b.jpeg}
		\fignote{26}{Panoramic windows, as in this bus in Aichi, Japan, can dramatically improve the customer’s ability to see the outside environment.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:panoramic-windows-as-in-this-bus-in-aichi-japan-can-dramatically-improve-the-customers-ability-to-see-the-outside-environment}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

The aesthetic design of the interior can also affect the customer’s opinion of the system. As shown in Figures 20.25 and 20.26, the right choice of shapes, colors, and textures can all do much to create a professional and friendly environment.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/204-vehicle-interior-design.src: lines 151-153: code points 1-41

\section{5}{Environmental Performance}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 3-697: code points 1-0

\quotation{The system of nature, of which man is a part, tends to be self-balancing, self-adjusting, self-cleansing. Not so with technology. (Small is Beautiful)}{E.F. Schumacher, economist, 1911–77}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-37

In addition to complying with the governing legislation, the project must define its minimum environmental standards. Because of the profitability of BRT, it is usually possible to set a higher environmental standard on BRT vehicles than is required under the law without compromising the profitability of operations. As BRT projects play an important role in improving environmental conditions, raising environmental standards that can be financially sustained is generally recommended.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 8-12: code points 1-59

Generally, the following must be considered in assessing the environmental quality of a system:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 14-15: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Emission levels;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 15-16: code points 1-0
\item Ambient air-quality standards;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 16-17: code points 1-0
\item Fuel quality;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 17-18: code points 1-0
\item Fuel type and propulsion system;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 18-19: code points 1-0
\item Levels on interior and exterior noise;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 19-20: code points 1-0
\item Ventilation and temperature standards (air renewal\slash{}time unit).% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 20-20: code points 1-68
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 15-20: code points 1-68

In the needs-assessment phase of the project, it is important to set the environmental goal. From an emissions standpoint, there is no one clear technical solution that is necessarily superior to another. Much will also depend on the availability of a particular fuel. Each fuel carries with it different trade-offs of costs, emissions, infrastructure, and potential operating constraints. In some instances, a fuel may emit less of one type of pollutant, but more of another type of pollutant. For example, CNG may do well in terms of reducing particulate emissions, but its life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions may not offer a significant advantage over diesel technology.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 22-28: code points 1-47

Some fuels may produce less local emissions, but may produce significant emissions at the point of electricity generation. Some fuels may produce few emissions from the standpoint of fuel tank-to-wheels but can produce significant emissions when the full fuel cycle is considered (e.g., well-to-wheels). For example, electric vehicles and hydrogen-fueled vehicles may produce zero emissions at the tailpipe, but the emissions generated at the power-plant or through the hydrogen generation process can be quite substantial. Some fuels may work well in ideal conditions, but are more polluting in circumstances when maintenance and road conditions are poor, or at high altitudes.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 30-36: code points 1-63

\subsection{1}{Emission Standards}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:emission-standards}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 38-232: code points 1-93

\beginbox{1}{BRT Standard: Minimizing Bus Emissions – 3 points maximum}
\label{chapter:vehicles:box:brt-standard-minimizing-bus-emissions--3-points-maximum}
Bus tailpipe emissions are typically a large source of urban air pollution. Especially at risk are bus passengers and people living or working near roadsides. In general, the pollutant emissions of highest concern from urban buses are particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Minimizing these emissions is critical to the health of both passengers and the general urban population.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 42-49: code points 1-66

The primary determinant of tailpipe emission levels is the stringency of governments’ emissions standards. While some fuels, like natural gas, tend to produce lower emissions, new emission controls have enabled even diesel buses to meet extremely clean standards. However, “clean” fuels do not guarantee low emissions of all pollutants. As a result, our scoring is based on certified emissions standards rather than fuel type. Over the last two decades, the European Union and the United States have adopted a series of progressively tighter emissions standards that are being used for this scoring system. Buses must be in compliance with Euro VI and U.S. 2010 emission standards to receive 3 points. These standards result in extremely low emissions of both PM and NOx. For diesel vehicles, these standards require the use of PM traps, ultra-low-sulfur diesel fuel, and selective catalytic reduction. To receive two points, buses need to be certified to Euro IV or V with PM traps (note: 50 ppm sulfur diesel fuel or lower is required for PM traps to function effectively).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 53-73: code points 1-13

Vehicles certified to the Euro IV and V standards that do not require traps emit twice as much PM as vehicles meeting more recent standards. Therefore, these vehicles are awarded one point. Ideally, buses will include contractually stipulated requirements in the purchase order to control real-world NOx emissions\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 77-82: code points 1-103

from buses in use, because the actual NOx emissions from urban buses certified to Euro IV and V have\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 84-84: code points 1-100

been tested at levels substantially higher than certified levels. Because that is hard to verify, it\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 86-86: code points 1-100

is included as a recommendation, but not as a requirement, for receiving the one point.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 88-88: code points 1-87

Zero points are awarded for U.S. 2004 and Euro III standards and less stringent standards, because these standards allow ten times as much PM emissions as the U.S. 2010 and Euro VI standards.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 92-95: code points 1-76

Buses also generate greenhouse gas emissions. Since no clear regulatory framework exists that requires bus manufacturers to meet specific greenhouse-gas emission targets or fuel-efficiency standards, there is no obvious way to identify a fuel-efficient bus by vehicle type. For CO2 impacts, we recommend the use of the TEEMP model, which incorporates The BRT Standard into a broader assessment of project-specific CO2 impacts.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 99-107: code points 1-12

\tabletitle{5}{(empty)}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:empty}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=24\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Emissions Standards& \color{gray75}\bfseries Points \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Euro VI or US 2010&
	\color{gray50}3\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro IV or V with PM traps or US 2007&
	\color{gray50}2\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro IV or V or Euro III CNG or using verified PM trap retrofit&
	\color{gray50}1\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Below Euro IV or V&
	\color{gray50}0\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 110-128: code points 1-9

\endbox
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 40-133: code points 1-7

Emission standards are the most typical mechanism for differentiating between the emissions levels of different vehicle options. The standards set forward by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the European Commission are most typically used to classify emission performance of different technologies. Table 20.5 gives an indication of how European and US EPA standards are related in terms of Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) and Particulate Matter (PM) emissions. For the most part, the two systems follow similar long-term objectives, although there are a few differences.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 137-142: code points 1-86

In many developing nations, the “Euro” (i.e., European) standards are being applied. Table 20.6 provides more detail on the Euro emissions standards, along with the likely fuel and technology requirements.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 144-146: code points 1-0

\tabletitle{6}{Euro Emission Standards for Heavy Vehicles}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:euro-emission-standards-for-heavy-vehicles}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=13\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Level& \color{gray75}\bfseries CO (g\slash{}kWh)& \color{gray75}\bfseries HC; (g\slash{}kWh);& \color{gray75}\bfseries NOx (g\slash{}kWh)& \color{gray75}\bfseries PM (g\slash{}kWh)& \color{gray75}\bfseries Certification fuel sulfur content (ppm)& \color{gray75}\bfseries Likely technological requirements \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Euro I&
	\color{gray50}4.5&
	\color{gray50}1.1&
	\color{gray50}8.0&
	\color{gray50}0.612&
	\color{gray50}2000&
	\color{gray50}Higher pressure fuel injection for PM control, timing retard for NOx control\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro II (1996)&
	\color{gray50}4.0&
	\color{gray50}1.1&
	\color{gray50}7.0&
	\color{gray50}0.25&
	\color{gray50}500&
	\color{gray50}All engines are turbocharged, improved high pressure fuel injection and timing optimization\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro III (2000)&
	\color{gray50}2.1&
	\color{gray50}0.66&
	\color{gray50}5.0&
	\color{gray50}0.1&
	\color{gray50}350&
	\color{gray50}In addition to above, electronic control for fuel injection, timing retard for NOx, common rail (CR) fuel injection, some exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro IV (2005)&
	\color{gray50}1.5&
	\color{gray50}0.46&
	\color{gray50}3.5&
	\color{gray50}0.02&
	\color{gray50}50&
	\color{gray50}In addition to the above, further NOx reduction using EGR or selective catalytic reduction (SCR). Some systems will use diesel particulate filters (DPFs) and most will incorporate oxidation catalysts.\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro V (2008)&
	\color{gray50}1.5&
	\color{gray50}0.46&
	\color{gray50}2.0&
	\color{gray50}0.02&
	\color{gray50}10&
	\color{gray50}Similar to above, with more reliance on SCR.\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Euro VI; (2013);&
	\color{gray50}1.5&
	\color{gray50}0.13&
	\color{gray50}0.40&
	\color{gray50}0.01&
	\color{gray50}10&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 146-203: code points 1-9

In order to achieve desired emissions standards or reductions from existing vehicles, several different components of the emissions-control program must be taken into account, including:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 205-207: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Fuel quality;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 207-208: code points 1-0
\item Engine technologies;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 208-209: code points 1-0
\item Emission-control technologies;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 209-210: code points 1-0
\item Inspection and maintenance program; and% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 210-211: code points 1-0
\item Driver training.% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 211-211: code points 1-22
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 207-211: code points 1-22

In order to ensure the greatest possible emissions reductions from both the new vehicles and the existing fleet, a comprehensive emissions-control program will be required.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 213-214: code points 1-66

In determining the appropriate emissions standards and technologies within a specific city or fleet perspective, many considerations must be taken into account, including the reliability of the fuel supply to meet quality standards, the mechanisms and incentives that are in place to ensure follow-up and compliance with driver training and maintenance procedures, and the applicability of the technology in context to the operating conditions of the fleet. Each component has a different ramification in the developing-nation context. Can the quality of the incoming fuel be assured, and how will adulteration of fuels be avoided? If advanced engine and emission-control technologies are utilized, how robust are these technologies in developing-city conditions? If an improved driver and maintenance program is established, what mechanisms and incentives are in place to ensure follow-up and compliance?\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 216-224: code points 1-63

In addition to emission standards, system planners may also specify the maximum allowable age of vehicles operating on the system. The age specification will help to maintain long-term system quality as well as ensure all private operators are competing on an equal basis. The maximum age will also play a fundamental role in calculating the operator’s amortization rate for the vehicle.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 226-229: code points 1-69

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/4b2a2a43f55b37ab9b74a94d2a1121323597fe43.jpeg}
		\fignote{27}{Technology is not the only solution to ensuring low emissions, as maintenance, fuel quality, and driving habits all contribute to the actual emission levels.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:technology-is-not-the-only-solution-to-ensuring-low-emissions-as-maintenance-fuel-quality-and-driving-habits-all-contribute-to-the-actual-emission-levels}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

\subsection{2}{Fuel Quality}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:fuel-quality}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 234-283: code points 1-114

In a BRT project, it is fairly typical that the BRT authority has control over the vehicle standard, but only limited influence on the fuel standard and fuel availability. However, in several cases a BRT project has been used to pressure the energy companies to provide cleaner fuels. The additional operational controls within a BRT system may make it possible to ensure a higher-quality fuel supply than is available within the rest of the city, and should make it possible to reduce the problems of fuel adulteration. In any case, the technical specification has to be set with awareness of available fuel quality. In Ecuador, the city of Quito maintains higher-fuel quality standards than other cities in the country. This higher level is in part due to the city’s unique climatic and geographical conditions, 2,800 meters of elevation, as well as the presence of a BRT system.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 236-244: code points 1-40

It is generally best to set the minimum-allowable vehicle-emission standard without specifying a specific technology, as this gives the operator greater flexibility to consider a range of factors such as fuel costs, fuel availability, maintenance, reliability, refueling times, and performance when complying with the standard. These factors will vary by location and situation, and the private sector may be in the best position to weigh the relative economic value of each factor. For instance, in Bogotá, the BRT authority specifies that vehicles must meet a minimum Euro II emission standard and have set forward a schedule to move towards Euro IV standards. TransMilenio does not specify a particular fuel or propulsion technology. These decisions are left to the private operators. There are also incentives in place for operators to propose vehicles exceeding the minimum standard. Such operators receive more points during the bidding process.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 246-255: code points 1-8

For BRT, the cleanest new vehicles that are compatible with available fuel quality are generally advisable. In some cases, BRT systems have been operated with a mismatch between the vehicle technology and the available fuel (Figure 20.28). Somewhat cleaner vehicles may be able to cope with dirtier fuels but may face increased maintenance issues. While Euro II and III vehicles are generally more forgiving than Euro IV or V vehicles, higher sulfur levels than are found in certification fuels may still increase maintenance costs for sensitive electronic engine equipment, such as high-pressure or common rail fuel injection. Lower sulfur fuels will reduce maintenance costs and improve vehicle durability for all vehicles, regardless of emissions standard.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 257-264: code points 1-22

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/a60b908752d48ddc256190b0488cc0c4d8d5307e.jpeg}
		\fignote{28}{On the Quito Central Norte corridor, the Euro III-compliant vehicles are not producing the desired results due to the use of 500 parts per million of sulfur in diesel fuel.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:on-the-quito-central-norte-corridor-the-euro-iii-compliant-vehicles-are-not-producing-the-desired-results-due-to-the-use-of-500-parts-per-million-of-sulfur-in-diesel-fuel}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

However, in some instances, there may be reason to specify a particular fuel type. In Delhi, India, all public-transport vehicles have been mandated to utilize compressed natural gas (CNG) as fuel (Figure 20.29). Adulterated fuels are those that have been tampered with by suppliers in order to improve their profits. For example, some fuel suppliers in India mix kerosene, which is subject to much lower taxation rates, into the diesel. The result of fuel adulteration such as this is poorly performing vehicles, higher emissions and air pollution, and more costly maintenance requirements. Thus, requiring Euro II or Euro III technology can be meaningless in such a scenario, since there is little control on the input fuel. By contrast, it is quite difficult to adulterate CNG, and thus its quality is more assured. Despite the rationale of this course and the relative availability of CNG in India, Delhi’s conversion from diesel fuels to CNG has been fraught with conflicts and political recriminations. Ultimately, it required the intervention of the national Supreme Court to ensure that the conversion process was finally undertaken.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 269-279: code points 1-104

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/40c825a5a5608e1c62be468bf52189436a6b899f.jpeg}
		\fignote{29}{All public-transport vehicles in Delhi, including the oldest vehicles, faced a mandatory conversion to CNG fuel in order to overcome difficulties with adulterated fuels.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:all-public-transport-vehicles-in-delhi-including-the-oldest-vehicles-faced-a-mandatory-conversion-to-cng-fuel-in-order-to-overcome-difficulties-with-adulterated-fuels}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

\subsection{3}{Fuel Types and Propulsion Systems}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:fuel-types-and-propulsion-systems}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 285-548: code points 1-50

Many governments and promoters of clean technology rightly see BRT as a possibility for introducing cleaner vehicle technology. Because of BRT’s profitability, it creates the potential of having a much cleaner vehicle without undermining the profitability of the service. However, this profitability is case-specific, and clean technologies should not be forced on BRT systems without first assessing the impact the technology will have on the quality of service, the profitability of the system, the transparency of the vehicle procurement process, and other factors.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 287-292: code points 1-54

The choice of fuel and propulsion technology will have a profound impact on operating costs, maintenance costs, supporting infrastructure, as well as emission levels. Local circumstances play a central role in fuel choice, as the availability of a fuel and experience in maintaining a particular vehicle technology are key factors. Further, as attention focuses more and more on the human and environmental costs of both local pollutants and global climate change, system developers are under increasing pressure to deliver cleaner vehicles options.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 294-299: code points 1-25

The following is a list of some of the most common fuel options currently being considered for public-transport vehicles (Figure 20.30):\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 301-303: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Diesel, both standard and clean;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 303-304: code points 1-0
\item Compressed natural gas (CNG);% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 304-305: code points 1-0
\item Liquid petroleum gas (LPG);% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 305-306: code points 1-0
\item Electric trolleybuses;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 306-307: code points 1-0
\item Bio-fuels, such as bio-diesel and ethanol;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 307-308: code points 1-0
\item Hybrid-electric (diesel-electric and CNG-electric);% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 308-309: code points 1-0
\item Hydrogen (fuel-cell technology).% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 309-309: code points 1-38
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 303-309: code points 1-38

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/f1987731d004017ba6bd4e8abe38d8739356ebed.png}
		\fignote{30}{Fuel and propulsion system options. Image\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:fuel-and-propulsion-system-options-image}}{ITDP.}
	}
\fi

A range of other possibilities also exists, such as fly-wheel technology, di-methyl ether (DME), and blended fuels (e.g., water-in-oil emulsions).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 313-314: code points 1-45

Choosing the type of engines that will be purchased and the fuel that will be used requires that consideration be given to several important issues. The following factors are the most important when considering a fuel and propulsion technology:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 316-319: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Fuel availability and price volatility;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 319-320: code points 1-0
\item Vehicle cost;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 320-321: code points 1-0
\item Reliability;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 321-322: code points 1-0
\item Government policy;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 322-323: code points 1-0
\item Environmental impact.% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 323-323: code points 1-27
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 319-323: code points 1-27

\emphasis{Diesel (Standard and Clean)}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 325-325: code points 1-29

A clean-diesel system implies that the propulsion-system technology and the fuel quality are such that the end result is much lower emissions than a standard diesel vehicle. The International Energy Agency notes that (IEA, 2002b, p. 61):\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 327-329: code points 1-31

“Diesel engines are recognized and favored worldwide for their fuel efficiency, excellent durability and low maintenance requirements. They offer the convenience of using a liquid fuel that is easily dispensed through an established fueling infrastructure. The technology is mature, widely produced and competitively priced. Although diesel engines have historically produced high levels of pollutant emissions, especially oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and particulate matter (PM), recent improvements in engines and fuel and emissions-control technology have resulted in new diesel systems for buses that are substantially cleaner than they were only a few years ago.”\par
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For diesel, sulfur content is the most critical factor to consider, as many of the pollution-control devices used in the cleaner buses require lower sulfur fuels. In some cities, diesel fuels may contain over 2000 parts per million (ppm) of sulfur. To achieve Euro II standards, a sulfur level of less than 500 ppm is likely to be required. To achieve “ultra-low-sulfur diesel” (ULSD), the fuel must contain less than 50 ppm. Many emission-control technologies will only function properly if the fuel sulfur levels are below acceptable levels.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 339-344: code points 1-28

Reducing sulfur from diesel fuel also carries with it other emissions benefits, such as simultaneously also reducing particulate matter (PM), which is a key pollutant from a public-health perspective. As shown in Figure 20.31, sulfur contributes to the production of particulate matter in all diesel engines. At higher sulfur levels, sulfate can account for up to 5 to 15 percent of PM emissions from diesel. At lower sulfur levels, after-treatment emissions controls can reduce PM emissions much more substantially, either as retrofit devices or as standard equipment on new vehicles meeting more stringent standards. Diesel oxidation catalysts, which can reduce PM emissions by 20 to 30 percent, can generally be used with sulfur levels up to 500 ppm. Diesel particulate filters, which can reduce more than 90 percent of PM emissions, generally require sulfur levels to be under 50 ppm.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/74242416d4e78b289a8684ad99a2d1174a3c7d0c.png}
		\fignote{31}{There is a close relationship between the emissions of sulfur and emissions of particulate matter (PM).\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:there-is-a-close-relationship-between-the-emissions-of-sulfur-and-emissions-of-particulate-matter-pm}}{Luis Willumsen.}
	}
\fi

Hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), and even nitrogen oxides (NOx) are also affected by emissions standards and contingent on fuel quality. As can be seen in Table 20.5, the Euro standards are scheduled to reduce emissions of all major pollutants. Euro II and III each represent a 60 percent reduction in PM emissions from the previous standards. Euro IV standards have 80 percent lower PM emissions than Euro III, and thus representing a 97-percent reduction from Euro I standards. The cleaner the vehicle, however, the more sensitive it is to fuel quality.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 359-364: code points 1-41

Emissions from diesel vehicles will vary depending on local conditions such as altitude, atmospheric pressure, humidity, and climate. The quality of ongoing vehicle maintenance and the integrity of the fuel supply chain will also affect specific system emissions. Nevertheless, with the right fuel quality, diesel vehicles can produce emissions reductions in line with many of the more costly alternative fuels. In general, it can do so with a lower vehicle cost and with a more robust maintenance regime.\par
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\emphasis{Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 372-372: code points 1-30

CNG is highly touted as a reliable fuel option that “inherently” achieves lower emissions. CNG contains virtually no sulfur and naturally burns quite cleanly. However, CNG is not a perfect solution. For some emission types, the performance of CNG may not be that much better than clean diesel vehicles.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 374-376: code points 1-94

In the case of greenhouse-gas emissions, the entire well-to-wheels analysis of CNG production, distribution, and use may imply that there is little, if any, advantage over diesel. Upstream methane losses along pipelines can significantly increase total life-cycle greenhouse emissions for CNG. Some studies estimate that with the inclusion of methane leakage, CNG will actually produce significantly more total greenhouse-gas emissions (CVTF, 2000).\par
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There are also other issues to consider with CNG. The low energy density of the fuel means that the gas must be compressed for on-board storage in large, bulky cylinders. CNG vehicles also require different maintenance skills that may not be common. In some cases, CNG vehicles may face power issues on steep hills, at high altitudes, and in some temperatures. The refueling infrastructure for CNG can also be costly to develop.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 384-388: code points 1-18

Refueling time is also a consideration for CNG vehicles. Typically, refueling time per vehicle will range from 20 to 40 minutes.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d84b832477563892377e22552de4a85647a25786.jpeg}
		\fignote{32}{Los Angeles has developed the infrastructure to use CNG technology for the entire fleet on its Orange Line.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:los-angeles-has-developed-the-infrastructure-to-use-cng-technology-for-the-entire-fleet-on-its-orange-line}}{Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transport Authority.}
	}
\fi

Nevertheless, CNG holds much potential for emission reductions of PM and sulfur oxides, and thus, if the fuel is available locally, then the technology should be given serious consideration. Further, as experience grows with CNG, the technology is becoming increasingly robust from a maintenance standpoint.\par
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\emphasis{Electric-Trolley Vehicles}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 400-400: code points 1-27

Electric-trolley vehicles are a well-established technology that produces zero emissions at the point of use. The total fuel-cycle emissions of electric-operated vehicles will depend upon the fuel used in the electricity generation. Fossil-fuel-based electricity generation, such as electricity from coal or petroleum, will produce high levels of total emissions, while renewable sources, such as hydro-electric and wind sources, will be relatively emission free. Thus, in countries with clean electricity generation, electric trolleys can be a low-emitting option to consider. Electric-trolley vehicles are also extremely quiet in operation. Table 20.6 summarizes the different issues to consider in choosing electric-trolley technology.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 402-410: code points 1-0

\tabletitle{7}{Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Trolleybus Technology}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:advantages-and-disadvantages-of-electric-trolleybus-technology}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=7\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=22\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Advantages& \color{gray75}\bfseries Disadvantages \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Zero emissions at point of use (total emissions will depend on fuel type for electricity generation)&
	\color{gray50}Vehicles can cost up to three times the amount of a comparable diesel vehicle\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Quiet operation&
	\color{gray50}Operating costs highly dependent on electricity prices; subsequent electricity deregulation can destabilize financial model\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Smooth ride characteristics&
	\color{gray50}Route modifications are very expensive\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Longer vehicle life (up to twice the vehicle life of diesel vehicles)&
	\color{gray50}Longer implementation time required to build the electric conduit network\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}Risk of service disruption during power failure unless vehicles have backup diesel motor\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}Infrastructure costs can be over twice that of a non-trolley BRT system\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}Presence of wiring, posts, and transformers can create aesthetic concerns, particularly in historical centers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}If the electric-trolley vehicle pantograph comes off the overhead wires, it can cause significant system delay\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
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\emphasis{Biofuels (Ethanol and Bio-Diesel)}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 440-440: code points 1-35

Ethanol is a fuel produced from the fermentation of sugars in carbohydrates, derived from agricultural crops like corn and grains, wood, or animal wastes. Currently, ethanol is derived predominantly from corn and sugar cane (Figure 20.33). Brazil possesses an extensive ethanol program using sugar cane. In the future, cellulosic ethanol may become viable, in which the fuel can be derived from a broader range of plant and agricultural species. However, commercial production of cellulosic ethanol is yet to be fully realized.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/f7bf4e1e20941563ac908f68d0e349a1613181c5.jpeg}
		\fignote{33}{Sugar cane production in Mauritius.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:sugar-cane-production-in-mauritius}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

Bio-diesel is a fuel derived from biological sources that can be used in diesel engines instead of petroleum-derived diesel. Through the process of transesterification, the triglycerides in the biologically derived oils are separated from the glycerin, creating a combustible fuel. Bio-diesel fuel is currently derived predominantly from soya.\par
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Biofuels hold the potential to deliver a product with net zero greenhouse-gas emissions. The CO2 emitted by biofuels can be balanced by the CO\textsubscript{2} absorbed during plant growth, potentially resulting in a fixed carbon cycle. However, the reality is more complicated. Total greenhouse emissions from biofuel production are still quite poorly understood, including certain factors that could increase net greenhouse gas emissions considerably. These factors include: energy inputs into the cultivation of crops; secondary emissions that have climate-change impacts (e.g., black soot); amount of fertilizer use and resultant emissions of nitrous oxide (N\textsubscript{2}O); amount of pesticide use; and, type of biomass being displaced by energy crops. In some instances, such as soy-based fuels, the resulting greenhouse-gas emissions from nitrogen releases may overwhelm other benefits (Deluchi, 2003). Additionally, it is unclear if the amount of agricultural land is sufficient to produce biofuels in a quantity sufficient to dramatically offset petroleum fuels (IEA, 2004).\par
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Biofuel production may have an array of other unintended side effects. As the market for biofuel builds, there will be growing pressure on sensitive ecosystems to be converted into crop production. This phenomenon is already clearly evident in the Amazon region of Brazil, where increased demand for soya is leading to further illegal destruction of the Amazon ecosystem. Each year, approximately 20,000 square kilometers of the Amazon rainforest are cleared for agricultural use (Economist, 2006). More intensive biofuel production can also imply greater depletion of input resources such as soil quality and water (Figures 20.34 and 20.35).\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/dd57c1e45f671eaaee8184e1d750be5b1a330bc7.jpeg}
		\fignote{34}{The growing demand for soy has fueled further destruction of the Amazon rainforest.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-growing-demand-for-soy-has-fueled-further-destruction-of-the-amazon-rainforest}}{iStockphotos.}
	}
\fi

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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/2095a984516b1e46ed5650b050f82aa6aaf1599c.jpeg}
		\fignote{35}{As the demand for biofuel increases, production inputs, such as water, will also come under increasing demand.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:as-the-demand-for-biofuel-increases-production-inputs-such-as-water-will-also-come-under-increasing-demand}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

There is also increasing concern over the impact biofuel production will have upon food prices. It is reported that the grain required to fill the typical 95-liter petrol tank of a sport utility vehicle with ethanol will feed one person for a year. The grain to fill the tank every two weeks over a year will feed 26 people (Brown, 2006). In the United States, the amount of the corn (maize) crop dedicated to ethanol production increased 34 percent from 2006 to 2005. In 2006, some 54 million tons of maize went to ethanol production, even though ethanol only represents a small percentage of the fuel used in vehicles in the United States (Planet Ark, 2006). In late 2006, an increase in maize prices due to biofuel demand caused tortilla prices to triple in Mexico. Since tortillas represent the staple of the local diet, many low-income families were severely affected by these increases. With strong protests from the population, the government was eventually forced to adapt price controls. These types of conflicts may become more common as the market for biofuels expands.\par
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\emphasis{Hybrid-Electric Vehicles (Diesel-Electric and CNG-Electric)}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 494-494: code points 1-61

Hybrid-electric vehicles will likely be one of the first of the advanced technologies to gain large-scale acceptance in the market. Hybrids utilize both conventional fuels (e.g., diesel, CNG, etc.) and electrical motors to propel the drive-train. Electric power can be generated during vehicle deceleration and then utilized to operate motors attached to each wheel. Since electric motors are used for part of the vehicle’s operation, hybrids offer superior fuel economy, reduced emissions, and lower noise levels (Figure 20.36).\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/83df9749b4b51ee5cacdefa8b2ffb7dbf818bd6f.png}
		\fignote{36}{The potential of hybrid-electric vehicles to cost-effectively reduce tailpipe emissions has drawn the attention of most manufacturers.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-potential-of-hybrid-electric-vehicles-to-cost-effectively-reduce-tailpipe-emissions-has-drawn-the-attention-of-most-manufacturers}}{Volvo.}
	}
\fi

However, even with this technology, the emission-reduction benefits can vary depending on the driving-duty cycle. The city of Seattle, Washington, USA has made one of the largest investments in hybrid-electric technology within its bus system. However, despite manufacturer claims of fuel efficiency gains of 25 percent or more, the initial results in Seattle were significantly less due to the route choice (Hadley, 2004). If the bus-duty cycle does not involve sufficient stop-and-go travel, then the efficiency gains from regenerative braking are not realized. The additional weight of the hybrid-electric vehicle offsets the gains from the on-board electricity generation (Wright and Fulton, 2005).\par
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Like all new technologies, a certain period of adjustments and experimentation are required prior to optimum results being achieved. However, the complexity of propulsion system and cost of the hybrid components mean that hybrids may not be well suited for all developing city applications.\par
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Currently, efforts are being made to produce hybrid-electric vehicles in Brazil. Because of various local conditions, such as lack of driver familiarity with the technology, the environmental benefits have been less than anticipated, but the problems are likely to be resolvable.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 518-520: code points 1-78

\emphasis{Hydrogen (Fuel-Cell Technology)}\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 522-522: code points 1-33

National research and development budgets have heavily invested in fuel-cell technologies. In 2003, the United States launched its five-year Hydrogen Fuel Cell Initiative with a commitment of US\$1.7 billion in research funding. Likewise, the European Union is supporting a US\$3.7 billion public-private partnership in a 10-year fuel cell development program. In 2003, Japan dedicated US\$268 million of its government research budget to fuel cells. Likewise, other governments such as Canada and China also have their own fuel-cell program (Science, 2004).\par
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Fuel-cell vehicles are undergoing testing in both developed and developing cities. Through a grant from the Global Environment Facility (GEF), several developing cities, such as Beijing and Cairo, have had an opportunity to evaluate the technology. However, none of these cities are actually operating full fleets with these technologies. The costs, environmental benefits, and performance of these vehicles are not entirely proven. Since most hydrogen is currently produced from electrolysis, the emissions benefits are directly tied to the type of technology utilized for the generation of the electricity.\par
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The International Energy Agency notes that there are no certainties when hydrogen fuel cells will become commercially viable (IEA, 2004). Hydrogen storage capabilities, the dependence on expensive rare-metal catalysts (e.g., platinum), and the development of appropriate infrastructure all represent formidable uncertainties in the timely delivery of a commercial product. By depending solely on a technology without a known delivery date, action on transport-sector emissions can be significantly delayed:\par
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“…by skewing research toward costly large-scale demonstrations of technology well before it’s ready for market, governments risk repeating a pattern that has sunk previous technologies, such as synfuels in the 1980s. By focusing research on technologies that aren’t likely to have a measurable impact until the second half of the century, the current hydrogen push fails to address the growing threat from greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels” (Science, 2004).”\par
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\subsection{4}{Fuel Availability and Price Volatility}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:fuel-availability-and-price-volatility}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 550-621: code points 1-15

Not all fuels are widely available. Many alternative fuels may simply not be available at the time that the BRT system is going into operation, and thus fuel availability will constrain the selection of propulsion technology.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 552-554: code points 1-25

Diesel and electricity are by far the most widely available fuels. Low-sulfur diesel is available in a growing number of countries, but its availability is still fairly limited in developing countries. Current price levels in different countries are well documented through the GIZ International Fuel Prices publication (Wagner et al., 2012\slash{}2013). As evidenced in Figure 20.37, subsidy and tax levels can make a significant difference in actual fuel costs.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/44a8b70def7edf86422a9cda919e530bfcc458f1.jpeg}
		\fignote{37}{The yellow and red areas represent countries with significant fuel subsidies as of November 2012.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-yellow-and-red-areas-represent-countries-with-significant-fuel-subsidies-as-of-november-2012}}{International Fuel Prices 2012\slash{}2013 provided by GIZ.}
	}
\fi

Natural gas as a bus fuel requires a supply network in close proximity to fleet maintenance and parking areas. Some cities have natural gas and others do not. Some cities have the gas, but have not yet invested in the specialized equipment such as the pipeline, compressors, dehumidifiers, and other equipment necessary to make the fuel usable as a bus fuel. When Delhi, India, was forced to switch to natural gas, the lack of sufficient sources of supply led to severe disruption of bus services. TransJakarta also faced a similar problem where buses would have to queue in long lines due to the lack of refueling stations. These problems can be mitigated with proper planning.\par
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Hydrogen fuel cells are currently not commercially viable without massive subsidies, but an additional problem is the availability of hydrogen. Hydrogen is not found in any substantial quantities in the natural environment. For this reason, hydrogen is not really a fuel type, but rather it is an energy carrier, in a similar manner that an electric battery is an energy carrier. Most of the hydrogen fuel-cell projects developed to date have relied upon electrolysis, which generates the hydrogen from passing an electrical current through water. This requires special equipment and electricity. The other likely source of hydrogen is natural gas, which then requires a natural-gas supply. Both approaches require expensive specialized equipment. Further, depending on how the electricity is generated to produce the hydrogen, the life-cycle emissions from a fuel-cell vehicle can actually be considerably higher than a standard diesel vehicle.\par
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The electricity for electric trolleybuses is less of a problem than the cost and maintenance of the electric conduit and the electricity stations that feed them. Electric-diesel hybrids which do not require electric conduits mitigate the need for expensive conduits.\par
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In every case, a vulnerability and risk analysis associated with fuel-supply systems is necessary, as public services like transportation cannot risk interruptions in operation due to problems within gas pipes tubes or power outages.\par
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The risk of future fuel-price volatility is a related issue. System operators will want to insulate themselves against the risk of sudden future increases in fuel prices. A vehicle technology should be selected which reduces the risk of future fuel price increases.\par
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		\fignote{38}{Sudden changes in fuel costs can jeopardize a system’s entire economic viability.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:sudden-changes-in-fuel-costs-can-jeopardize-a-systems-entire-economic-viability}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

While predicting future fuel supplies is difficult, this risk can be mitigated by having the vehicle operator negotiate long-term fixed-rate contracts with the relevant fuel suppliers, or by buying futures options in the fuel. The risk can also be mitigated by the use of vehicle technologies that can run on multiple fuel types.\par
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If a city has a nearby natural gas supply, it may be worth the investment in the necessary infrastructure and equipment to provide natural gas at the depot, if a reasonably priced long-term supply contract can be negotiated with the gas supplier. A local supply of natural gas is important because it is relatively easy to pipe but expensive to ship. Similarly, if oil is produced in the country, particularly if it is produced by a state-run oil company, it may be possible to negotiate a long-term fixed-rate supply contract.\par
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Conversely, if a country has hydroelectric power, or large supplies of coal, or declining electricity demand (as in the case of the former socialist countries of Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union) it may be that future electricity supplies are more predictable than prices for diesel or natural gas. Again, the issue may be more whether or not a long-term supply contract can be negotiated. It is not enough to assume that a government company will mean stable future fuel prices. System operators should still protect themselves with long-term supply contracts or futures contracts. Long-term supply contracts also may be possible from commercial providers, though they will cost more.\par
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In the case of Quito, for example, the decision to go with electric trolleybuses was initially related to low electricity costs. While the initially low electricity rates made the operational costs competitive with diesel-based systems, a subsequent deregulation of the Ecuadorian electricity sector has seen electricity costs increase.\par
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\subsection{5}{Reliability}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:reliability}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 623-658: code points 1-9

Reliability of the propulsion technology is a major concern for a BRT system. Vehicle breakdowns in a BRT system are more serious than in a normal bus operation, because a broken down bus will congest the BRT lane and lead to a significant disruption of service.\par
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One of the main advantages of diesel fuel is that the vehicle technology is more mature, and with proper maintenance, vehicle breakdowns are more predictable and easier to repair (Figure 20.39).\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/c1258965d212ae19ff6f646dc1057a3315cdceff.jpeg}
		\fignote{39}{Diesel technology has a long operational track record, and thus the technology’s robustness and maintenance requirements are well known.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:diesel-technology-has-a-long-operational-track-record-and-thus-the-technologys-robustness-and-maintenance-requirements-are-well-known}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

Electric trolleybuses themselves have excellent maintenance records, but there can be problems with power failures and maintenance failures in the electric conduits. Electric trolleybus technology is used in São Paulo’s Corredor Metropolitano ABD BRT system in São Paulo. Some operational problems were experienced due to poor maintenance of the overhead conduit line, but it could be partially controlled by turning over control of conduit maintenance to the vehicle operator, who has a bigger stake in a breakdown than the power company.\par
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In any case, most important is a maintenance contract with the supplier. In the case of TransMilenio in Bogotá, manufacturers have staff at the depot for major repairs (Figure 20.40). It is therefore critical that the degree of technical support offered by the vehicle supplier be a major consideration in the procurement contract. In Quito, for example, Spanish electric trolleybus suppliers were selected over lower-cost Russian suppliers, largely because of the quality of maintenance support offered.\par
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		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/68286bdac686807706ae2a069c354331c7d5d58f.jpeg}
		\fignote{40}{Many of the operating companies in Bogotá directly contract the vehicle manufacturers to provide maintenance services for the vehicles.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:many-of-the-operating-companies-in-bogot-directly-contract-the-vehicle-manufacturers-to-provide-maintenance-services-for-the-vehicles}}{Lloyd Wright.}
	}
\fi

If the risks of vehicle breakdown are extremely high, local maintenance capacity is low, and the ability of the local operators to mobilize capital is weak, it may be worth exploring the option of leasing the vehicles from the manufacturer.\par
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For any vehicle, it is also advisable to run fuel and general-performance tests locally that simulate the anticipated conditions of operation, before reaching a decision. Vehicles that work well in developed countries in temperate climates may work poorly in tropical climates on poor roads with major drainage problems.\par
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\subsection{6}{Noise}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:noise}
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Acceptable noise levels should also be specified within the vehicle-procurement specifications. Excessively loud vehicles are both a health hazard and a detriment to the marketing image of the public transport service.\par
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Noise levels are determined by several variables including:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 666-667: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Fuel and propulsion system technology;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 667-668: code points 1-0
\item Design of propulsion system;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 668-669: code points 1-0
\item Size of vehicle relative to engine size;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 669-670: code points 1-0
\item Dampening technologies and exhaust system employed;% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 670-671: code points 1-0
\item Quality of road surface; and% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 671-672: code points 1-0
\item Maintenance practices.% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 672-672: code points 1-28
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 667-672: code points 1-28

Some fuel and propulsion systems, such as electric vehicles, are naturally quiet. In other instances, the design of the propulsion system can encourage smooth operation, as well as the dampening of sounds. Ensuring incentives for well-maintained vehicles and roads will also help achieve lower noise levels. In Bogotá, the vehicle specifications mandate that internal noise levels of the vehicles are not to exceed 90 decibels.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 674-678: code points 1-12

A very quiet vehicle does introduce other issues. Electric-trolleybus technology operates with little noise. However, in turn, the lack of noise can create a hazard for pedestrians who may not be aware of the presence of an oncoming vehicle. This type of hazard is particularly a concern for the sight-impaired, who are often quite dependent on noise to guide their movements.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 680-683: code points 1-64

\subsection{7}{Ventilation and Temperature Standards}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:environmental-performance:subSection:ventilation-and-temperature-standards}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 685-697: code points 1-0

The presence or absence of climate control inside the vehicles can have an enormous impact, not only on the quality of service, but also on the costs of operations. In some climate conditions, air conditioning is not that critical to customer comfort, but in other cases, the lack of air conditioning alone may be enough to induce middle- and upper-income customers to stay in cars. Requiring air conditioning is critical to a high status image for the system, but it will also put upward pressure on the fare, because vehicles will be more expensive and will use more fuel. As a general rule, climate control inside the vehicles is preferred, if it is at all possible, given the profitability of the system.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 687-693: code points 1-87

Whether air conditioning is used or not, attention should be given to the amount of air turnover inside the vehicle. In highly crowded vehicles, the air quality can quickly deteriorate without adequate ventilation.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/205environmental-performance.src: lines 695-697: code points 1-0

\section{6}{Other Physical Characteristics}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:other-physical-characteristics}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 3-315: code points 1-23

\quotation{Whatever good things we build end up building us.}{Jim Rohn, businessman, 1930–2009}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-34

Besides the vehicle length and propulsion system type, there are a range of other characteristics that will define the vehicle. The specifications set forth during the operational design will determine many other additional factors regarding the technical specification required for the vehicle, including the following:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 8-12: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Body type (segregated from chassis, unified);% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 12-13: code points 1-0
\item Number of doorways and size of doorways;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 13-14: code points 1-0
\item Type of system for opening and closing the doorways;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 14-15: code points 1-0
\item Doorway location;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 15-16: code points 1-0
\item Transmission type (automatic, manual, retarder);% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 16-17: code points 1-0
\item Type of propulsion system;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 17-18: code points 1-0
\item Engine location (front, center, rear);% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 18-19: code points 1-0
\item Engine power rating;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 19-20: code points 1-0
\item Acceleration capacity;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 20-21: code points 1-0
\item Braking technology;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 21-22: code points 1-0
\item Braking capacity;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 22-23: code points 1-0
\item Suspension type (springs, hydraulic);% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 23-24: code points 1-0
\item Road turning radius (internal and external);% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 24-25: code points 1-0
\item Axle-load capacity.% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 25-25: code points 1-25
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 12-25: code points 1-25

If decisions on these parameters are made without reference to the operational design, serious design mistakes can occur. For example, in Jakarta, Indonesia, a vehicle with plenty of capacity was procured, but the vehicle had only one door. This single-door decision seriously delayed customer boarding and alighting speed, and the entire capacity of the corridor was severely compromised. Similarly, vehicles with axle loads above the weight-bearing capacity of the road surface treatment on the corridor led to rapid deterioration of the roadbed.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 27-33: code points 1-0


			\ifxetex
				% disabled for now
			\else
				{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
					\tabletitle{8}{Specifications from the Mexico City Manual on Safety, Accessibility, Comfort, and Manufacturing of Buses.}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:specifications-from-the-mexico-city-manual-on-safety-accessibility-comfort-and-manufacturing-of-buses}

					\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/4ae6e4f18ec881b2cf00b780e67b73b9be7c4da9.png}
				}
			\fi

* Recommended for medium and steep routes because of the engine type and location.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 37-37: code points 1-83

** Recommended for flat routes because of its engine type and location.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 39-39: code points 1-73

In most countries, there are regulations and conditions that public transportation vehicles must meet pertaining to bus import, assembly, and manufacturing. Identifying all conditions and restrictions thus becomes necessary, along with any required certification and standardization processes. Norms, standards, and regulations that cover the following fields are present in most countries:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 41-45: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Environmental performance;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 45-46: code points 1-0
\item Security standards;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 46-47: code points 1-0
\item Physical conditions;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 47-48: code points 1-0
\item Country of origin;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 48-49: code points 1-0
\item Local manufacturing ratios;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 49-50: code points 1-0
\item Import procedures and requirements;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 50-51: code points 1-0
\item Tariffs and other import duties;% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 51-52: code points 1-0
\item Handicap accessibility.% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 52-52: code points 1-29
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 45-52: code points 1-29

In the absence of laws and regulations governing these issues, setting the vehicle technical specification should take these issues into consideration in any case, following international norms.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 54-55: code points 1-87

As a reference, Table 20.8 is a summary of the vehicle specifications put forward by the public company overseeing Phase I of the Bogotá TransMilenio system in 2000. The actual specifications for any given city will vary depending on local preferences and circumstances.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 57-60: code points 1-0

\tabletitle{9}{Bogotá Vehicle Specifications (Trunk Vehicles)}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:bogot-vehicle-specifications-trunk-vehicles}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=11\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=18\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Vehicle attribute& \color{gray75}\bfseries Specification \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Load weights}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}GAWR front axle load&
	\color{gray50}7,500 kg\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}GAWR middle axle load&
	\color{gray50}20,500 kg\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}GAWR rear axle load&
	\color{gray50}20,500 kg\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}GVWR total weight&
	\color{gray50}30,000 kg\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{External dimensions}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum width&
	\color{gray50}2.60 meters\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum height&
	\color{gray50}4.10 meters\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Overall minimum length&
	\color{gray50}17.50 meters\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Overall maximum length&
	\color{gray50}18.50 meters\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum front overhang&
	\color{gray50}3000 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum rear overhang&
	\color{gray50}3500 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Floor height from ground}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Minimum height&
	\color{gray50}870 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum height&
	\color{gray50}930 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Turning radius}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Minimum between sidewalks&
	\color{gray50}7,400 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum between sidewalks&
	\color{gray50}20,100 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Minimum between walls&
	\color{gray50}7,400 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum between walls&
	\color{gray50}13,400 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Chassis and body}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Body type&
	\color{gray50}Integral body or self-supporting body\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Modification&
	\color{gray50}Every modification of the chassis must be formally approved by the manufacturer\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Certification of static load proof&
	\color{gray50}Can be obtained by physical proof or computational model; Minimum certified roof resistance in 5 minutes: 50\% of GMV; Maximum deformation in every point: 70 mm;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Customer space}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Total customer capacity&
	\color{gray50}160 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Seating capacity&
	\color{gray50}48 customers\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Color of seats&
	\color{gray50}Red\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Number of preferential seats&
	\color{gray50}6\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Color of preferential seats&
	\color{gray50}Blue\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Standing customer area&
	\color{gray50}16 m2\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Standing design capacity&
	\color{gray50}7 customers per square meter\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Wheelchair capacity&
	\color{gray50}1 space for wheelchair (90 centimeters x 140 centimeters); Located in the first body of the bus in front of the second door\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Layout of seats&
	\color{gray50}2-2, 2-1, 1-1, 1-0; Perimeter or front-to-front\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Internal dimensions}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Free internal height&
	\color{gray50}2100 mm minimum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Superior visibility height&
	\color{gray50}1850 mm minimum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Inferior visibility height&
	\color{gray50}600 mm minimum; 850 mm maximum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Corridor width&
	\color{gray50}600 mm minimum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Seating characteristics}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Characteristics&
	\color{gray50}Individual seats; Closed in back; Direct anchorage to the vehicle floor; Without upholstery or cushioned; Without sharp edges or rivets;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Materials&
	\color{gray50}Plastic; Washable; Self-extinguishing and flame retardant; No release of toxic gases during combustion;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Seat dimensions}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Distance between seats&
	\color{gray50}700 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Distance between seats front to front&
	\color{gray50}1300 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Seat depth&
	\color{gray50}350 mm minimum; 430 mm maximum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Seat height (measured from floor)&
	\color{gray50}350 mm minimum; 450 mm maximum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Back height&
	\color{gray50}500 mm minimum; 600 mm maximum\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Seat width&
	\color{gray50}400 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Handles and handrails}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Characteristics&
	\color{gray50}Surfaces without sharp edges; End finished in a curve; Continuous; Non-slip surface;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Dimensions&
	\color{gray50}Diameter: Between 30 and 45 mm; Horizontal handrail height: 1750 mm minimum and 1800 mm maximum; Distance between vertical balusters: 1500 mm or every two seats;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Windows}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Front window type&
	\color{gray50}Laminated\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Type, all other windows&
	\color{gray50}Tempered\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Color of window&
	\color{gray50}Green\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Transparency level&
	\color{gray50}70\%\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Advertising&
	\color{gray50}Windows without advertisement\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Inferior module&
	\color{gray50}Fixed to the body with adhesive\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Superior module height&
	\color{gray50}Minimum: 30\% of total height of the window; Maximum: 50\% of total height of the window;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Doorways}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Number of customer doorways&
	\color{gray50}4\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Position&
	\color{gray50}Left side of vehicle\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Minimum free width&
	\color{gray50}1100 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Free height&
	\color{gray50}1900 mm\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Door opening time&
	\color{gray50}2 seconds\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Emergency doors&
	\color{gray50}Type: single door; Number of emergency doorways: 2; Minimum free width: 650 mm; Free height: 1800 mm; With stairs covered and with a pneumatic opening system;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Control and instrumentation}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Logic unit&
	\color{gray50}Communication display in view of driver; GPS and communications antennas; Tachnograph (with register and storage of instant velocity, distance traveled, times of operation and non-operation over 24-hour period);\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Control center communications&
	\color{gray50}Voice communication equipment\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Instrumentation&
	\color{gray50}Odometer with pulse output connected to the logic unit\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}&
	\color{gray50}Complete instrumentation with alarms for low pressure of the air brake system and motor oil system\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Ventilation}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Air renewal requirement&
	\color{gray50}Minimum 20 times per hour\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Noise}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Maximum internal sound level&
	\color{gray50}90 dB(A)\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Destination signs}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Number and size of signs&
	\color{gray50}1 in front: 1950 mm x 300 mm; 2 on left side: 450 mm x 250 mm;\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Visibility&
	\color{gray50}Visible from a distance of 100 meters\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}\emphasis{Technical standards}&
	\color{gray50}\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Vehicle&
	\color{gray50}NTC 4901-1 Mass Transport Passenger Vehicles\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Test methods&
	\color{gray50}NTC 4901-2 Mass Transport Passenger Vehicles\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Local standards&
	\color{gray50}ICONTEC (Colombian Technical and Standardization Institute)\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 60-313: code points 1-9

Source: TransMilenio SA\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/206-other-physical-characteristics.src: lines 315-315: code points 1-23

\section{7}{Vehicle Aesthetics}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-aesthetics}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 3-41: code points 1-120

\quotation{Design is not just what it looks like and feels like. Design is how it works.}{Steve Jobs, co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc., 1955-2011}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-64

The aesthetic nature of the vehicle technology should also be an explicit component of the design and specification process. Vehicle styling, color and aesthetic features figure greatly in the public’s perception of the system. The vehicle, along with the stations, are the most visceral and visible elements of the system. The appearance, branding, interior design, and maintenance of these elements will be critical to customer experience of the system and the visual language of the system.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 8-12: code points 1-75

Some manufacturers are now emulating many of the design features from light-rail systems (Figure 20.41). Simply by covering the wheels and rounding the bus body, these manufacturers have greatly increased the aesthetic appeal of their product. These initial vehicle designs are relatively expensive, in part because other features such as optical-guidance systems often accompany them. However, the idea of creating a customer pleasing form is not necessarily a costly endeavor.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 14-18: code points 1-60

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/e12e75d831f8157535cea71489def7c361e0baa9.jpeg}
		\fignote{41}{Despite giving a distinctly light-rail appearance, the Civis vehicle is actually a bus.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:despite-giving-a-distinctly-light-rail-appearance-the-civis-vehicle-is-actually-a-bus}}{US TCRP media library.}
	}
\fi

It is important that the external and internal aesthetic design include modern elements that differentiate the system from informal public transportation. Design elements that typically elicit a positive customer reaction include:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 23-26: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Aerodynamic curvature of body, especially a rounded front;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 26-27: code points 1-0
\item Covered wheels (Figure 20.42);% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 27-28: code points 1-0
\item Panoramic windows;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 28-29: code points 1-0
\item Window color and tint;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 29-30: code points 1-0
\item Paint-color combination;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 30-31: code points 1-0
\item Interior lighting of vehicle;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 31-32: code points 1-0
\item High-quality floor and interior materials;% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 32-33: code points 1-0
\item Interior layout and design (Figure 20.43);% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 33-34: code points 1-0
\item Information systems for customers (electronic information boards and sound systems).% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 34-34: code points 1-90
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/207-vehicle-aesthetics.src: lines 26-34: code points 1-90

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/b5cc525c619de4fe90f5da10cfb2a369e0505c18.jpeg}
		\fignote{42}{Covered wheels and well-designed interiors are seemingly small details that can have a big impact on the public’s perception of the vehicle.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:covered-wheels-and-well-designed-interiors-are-seemingly-small-details-that-can-have-a-big-impact-on-the-publics-perception-of-the-vehicle}}{NBRTI}
	}
\fi

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/b9477d564cb1ef93d6e214d354fcc42f16bc86cc.jpeg}
		\fignote{43}{Covered wheels and well-designed interiors are seemingly small details that can have a big impact on the public’s perception of the vehicle.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:covered-wheels-and-well-designed-interiors-are-seemingly-small-details-that-can-have-a-big-impact-on-the-publics-perception-of-the-vehicle}}{Advanced Public Transport Systems (APTS)}
	}
\fi

\section{8}{Strategic Considerations}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:strategic-considerations}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 3-51: code points 1-0

\quotation{A goal without a plan is just a wish.}{Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, author, 1900–44}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-43

There are a series of considerations that have to be taken into account besides technical, environmental or legal factors. These considerations are important from political and strategic points of view; and although they are not directly related to the system’s performance, they are directly associated with its impact and positive contribution to the local transportation service and to users.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 8-11: code points 1-86

\subsection{1}{Government Policies}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:strategic-considerations:subSection:government-policies}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 13-23: code points 1-72

Fuel-type selection can also be affected by political considerations, which may influence the system’s stability, permanency, and economic viability. In particular, development policies established by administrations must be considered, including factors such as:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 15-18: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Tariff structure for transportation equipment, depending on their respective technology (it might be possible to obtain preferential tariffs for low emission fuels);% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 18-20: code points 1-0
\item Policies regarding subsidies;% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 20-21: code points 1-0
\item Tax incentives for clean vehicles;% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 21-22: code points 1-0
\item Future plans and investments in clean fuel production initiatives;% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 22-23: code points 1-0
\item Future fuel supply infrastructure expansion and maintenance plans.% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 23-23: code points 1-72
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 18-23: code points 1-72

\subsection{2}{Local Assembly and Production}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:strategic-considerations:subSection:local-assembly-and-production}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 25-43: code points 1-69

Renovating vehicle-fleet technology and public transportation creates a great opportunity for developing new industries and implementing technologies that can be groundbreaking in the country in question.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 27-28: code points 1-99

It is desirable that when selecting vehicle technology, one can take into account the real possibility of incorporating local businesses into whatever part of the process is possible. For instance, it may be possible to encourage local fabrication, chassis assembly, body fabrication and mounting (Figure 20.44).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 30-32: code points 1-107

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/ca2c297af9a21fee8dc6e8629b533570f98285b0.jpeg}
		\fignote{44}{Cities such as Bogotá have put in the right incentives to encourage major vehicle manufacturers to set up local manufacturing facilities.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:cities-such-as-bogot-have-put-in-the-right-incentives-to-encourage-major-vehicle-manufacturers-to-set-up-local-manufacturing-facilities}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

Choosing more modern and state-of-the-art technology might make it more difficult to obtain parts and equipment locally, as this equipment might not be available. Further, such technology may prove difficult for local manufacturers to deliver. However, this should not mean that the technology chosen for the project has to be obsolete. On the contrary, even if the chosen technologies are advanced, an effort should be made to foment and encourage local industries to develop local capacity. Not being able to incorporate local business into the process might generate an unfavorable public opinion towards the project in some sectors and could also generate political opposition.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 37-43: code points 1-69

\subsection{3}{Ensuring Competition among Vehicle Suppliers}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:strategic-considerations:subSection:ensuring-competition-among-vehicle-suppliers}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 45-51: code points 1-0

The vehicle specifications should be developed in part to ensure that the widest number of manufacturers will be able to compete in the market. By maximizing the number of eligible manufacturers, the operating companies will be able to undertake a competing tendering process that will minimize the vehicle costs. Limiting the vehicle type to just one or two manufacturers will quite likely increase the purchase costs.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/208-strategic-considerations.src: lines 47-51: code points 1-0

\section{9}{Docking Systems}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:docking-systems}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/209-docking-systems.src: lines 3-22: code points 1-41

\quotation{We require from buildings two kinds of goodness: first, the doing their practical duty well: then that they be graceful and pleasing in doing it.}{Josh Ruskin, author, 1819-1900}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/209-docking-systems.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-32

The process of aligning the vehicle to the station will affect the speed of customer boarding and alighting, customer safety, and vehicle quality. Vehicle alignment to the station can be critical for both the lateral and longitudinal distances. The lateral distance between the vehicle and the station is important in terms of customers easily and safely crossing. The longitudinal placement of the vehicle can be critical if the station has precise doorways that must match up with the doorways on the vehicle. If the station has an open platform without doorways, then the longitudinal placement is less critical.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/209-docking-systems.src: lines 8-13: code points 1-88

Docking precision is also required to avoid damage to the vehicle. If a driver comes too close to the station platform, a collision between the vehicle and the station can easily occur. Rubber padding on the platform sides can mitigate some of the damage, but ultimately, small collisions will damage the vehicle. Boarding bridges that extend from the vehicle to cover the gap between the vehicle and the station are sometimes used by systems, like Curitiba in Brazil. While the docking system will be determined by the system designers, most operators do not like boarding bridges, as they are an extra maintenance cost and can be delicate (i.e., not robust). Chapter 25: BRT Stations, of this Planning Guide expands further on the design of stations and terminals.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/209-docking-systems.src: lines 15-22: code points 1-41

\section{10}{Vehicle Costs}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:vehicle-costs}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 3-208: code points 1-78

\quotation{The cost of a thing is the amount of what I will call life which is required to be exchanged for it, immediately or in the long run.}{Henry David Thoreau, author, 1817–62}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 5-6: code points 1-38

The one variable that often has an overriding impact on vehicle selection is cost. The amortization of the vehicle is one of the principal operating costs that affects both operator profitability as well as the fare level. An exorbitantly high-cost vehicle will reduce system profits and make fares unaffordable. For this reason, attention to vehicle costing must be undertaken jointly with the operational costing model.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 8-12: code points 1-6

Some of the principal determinants of a vehicle’s cost are vehicle size (i.e., length) and the type of propulsion system. Other factors, such as interior design, engine size (including if it is a front or rear engine), type of chassis (including high or low floor), air conditioning, and number of doorways, will also play a role. For example, a low-floor vehicle will cost approximately 25 percent more than a higher-floor model.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 14-18: code points 1-21

Economies-of-scale in production is a major factor that affects pricing. For this reason, two 12-meter vehicles often cost less than a single 18-meter vehicle. This result occurs due to the significantly greater number of 12-meter vehicles produced in the world.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 20-22: code points 1-58

Because vehicle cost is not fixed, but a function of the scale of production, some cleaner, new technologies face initial high costs, which create a barrier to entry. However, cleaner vehicles also yield social benefits for beyond just public-transport customers. These factors may in some cases constitute a justification for short-term subsidization of cleaner bus technologies.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 24-27: code points 1-57

Standard diesel vehicles are by far the least expensive vehicle technology. Most new BRT systems, such as the ones in Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Guadalajara, Mexico, Istanbul, Guatemala City, are now using Euro V diesel technology. Clean diesel technology, in combination with good-quality fuel, can often meet or even exceed the emission standards of supposedly more sophisticated propulsion systems. In Johannesburg, the BRT system was used to introduce Euro V buses for the first time to the country.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 29-33: code points 1-101

After diesel, CNG is perhaps the next most common type of fuel used in road-based public transport today. In India, the capital cost of a CNG bus is about 20 percent higher than that of a diesel bus, and ongoing maintenance costs are about 10 percent higher. The fuel price is another factor that would also increase the cost of running CNG. A typical 900-millimeter, 12-meter AC diesel bus would cost somewhere between US\$65,000 and US\$85,000 in India. (Figure 20.45). Elsewhere, a CNG vehicle will increase the procurement price by between US\$25,000 and US\$50,000 US dollars. The cost difference varies widely, depending on how powerful the engine needs to be, which will be a function of vehicle size.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 35-41: code points 1-81

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/27f6ad9bd5d6200d112b11ab81a686a6dc0e6368.jpeg}
		\fignote{45}{In India, fairly cost-effective CNG vehicles are supplied in substantial volumes.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:in-india-fairly-cost-effective-cng-vehicles-are-supplied-in-substantial-volumes}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

The electric trolleybus is also a fairly common propulsion type. Electric trolleybuses can be three times the cost of a comparable Euro II diesel vehicle. Further, the added infrastructure costs of the electric conduit and transformers can be significant. These extra costs are somewhat mitigated by the longer life of electric trolleybuses. Due to the lower mechanical demands on the electric trolleybus technology, the life of the vehicles can be twice that of diesel vehicles. Usually electric trolleybuses also have a backup diesel motor in case of a power failure, which accounts for part of the difference in cost.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 46-52: code points 1-8

Quito utilized electric trolleybus technology on its first BRT corridor in 1996 (Figure 20.46). The technology was chosen primarily for its environmental benefits. Quito’s historical core is a World Heritage Site, and the municipality wished to reduce the impacts of diesel emissions on the integrity of the built environment. Further, Ecuador’s electricity generation is primarily from hydro-electric sources. The price of each vehicle was approximately US\$700,000. In total, the added infrastructure for the electric-trolley corridor pushed capital costs to over US\$5 million per kilometer. By comparison, a subsequent BRT corridor in Quito using Euro II diesel technology resulted in capital costs of approximately US\$585,000 per kilometer.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 54-60: code points 1-109

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d609f288bcaab546ea75b02c5ce165905baa9672.jpeg}
		\fignote{46}{The cost of the electric-trolley vehicles in Quito, along with the cost of the associated infrastructure, resulted in a comparatively expensive system.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:the-cost-of-the-electric-trolley-vehicles-in-quito-along-with-the-cost-of-the-associated-infrastructure-resulted-in-a-comparatively-expensive-system}}{Lloyd Wright}
	}
\fi

Electric-diesel and electric-CNG hybrids are likely to be the next generation of clean vehicle technology. Currently electric-CNG and electric-diesel hybrids are available at US\$100,000 to US\$175,000 more than a standard diesel bus. The BRT systems in Cleveland, Ohio, and Eugene, Oregon, USA, both use electric-diesel hybrid articulated vehicles with a low floor.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 66-69: code points 1-45

The BRT business plan outlined in the chapters in Volume IV will determine how much money can reasonably be spent on the vehicle procurement without compromising the financial viability of the entire BRT system. The business plan will indicate the maximum cost of the vehicle procurement (depreciation) and the maximum ongoing operating cost (including maintenance) that can be sustained, and how much the system will have to charge per vehicle-kilometer in order to cover these costs. The technical specification can require high levels of environmental protection, high noise standards, high aesthetic standards, and high levels of customer comfort, but only within the parameters that the business plan has determined to be financially viable. In some cases, the system being designed will be profitable, as in the case of TransMilenio Phases 1-3, giving the system designers considerable freedom to set a high technical standard. In other cases, such as in very poor countries, customer demand may be highly sensitive to even modest increases in fare prices, placing tight constraints on the options for the technical specification.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 71-81: code points 1-81

Many local conditions will influence the cost of the vehicle. Vehicle technologies with a longer history and large manufacturing volumes will hold a cost advantage in terms of manufacturing economies of scale. Many traditional Indian buses, for example, are mass-produced using a truck body, and are some of the lowest-cost buses in the world, but they leave much to be desired from the point-of-view of customer comfort. New vehicle technologies will generally have lower manufacturing volumes and may incur additional research and tooling costs (Figure 20.47).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 83-88: code points 1-42

\ifxetex
	% disabled for now
\else
	{  % group required to avoid fignote settings escaping
		\img{\hsize}{technology/assets/d0c51f7e4d67a81f74f3af73807e57f0b0d766e1.jpeg}
		\fignote{47}{Specialized manufacturing of low-volume vehicles can dramatically increase overall costs.\label{chapter:vehicles:figure:specialized-manufacturing-of-low-volume-vehicles-can-dramatically-increase-overall-costs}}{TCRP BRT image library.}
	}
\fi

The location of the manufactured vehicle will also be a factor. Production sites in developing countries will often hold an advantage in terms of labor and site costs. Further, locally manufactured vehicles will have lower shipping costs to arrive at the destination city. However, in some instances, locally manufactured vehicles may raise quality issues in comparison to developed-nation production sites.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 93-96: code points 1-98

In some cases, the vehicle manufacturers themselves have determined that certain branches of their own company are responsible for specific regions, even though they may not be the lowest-cost producers. For example, the cost of good-quality name- brand buses in Africa is sometimes more expensive, only because the manufacturers have determined that the African market is to be supplied by the European branch, rather than the Latin American or Asian branch of the company. The following factors are likely to strongly influence local vehicles procurement costs:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 98-104: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item Chassis cost;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 104-105: code points 1-0
\item Body Cost;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 105-106: code points 1-0
\item Sales tax;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 106-107: code points 1-0
\item Licensing and paperwork fees and costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 107-108: code points 1-0
\item Circulation permit costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 108-109: code points 1-0
\item Operational insurance costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 109-110: code points 1-0
\item Financing cost;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 110-111: code points 1-0
\item Projected vehicle life;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 111-112: code points 1-0
\item Projected resale value;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 112-113: code points 1-0
\item Projected repair requirements.% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 113-113: code points 1-36
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 104-113: code points 1-36

For imported vehicles, there will be the following additional cost considerations:\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 115-116: code points 1-0

\begin{itemize}
\item CIF costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 116-117: code points 1-0
\item Shipping costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 117-118: code points 1-0
\item Shipping insurance costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 118-119: code points 1-0
\item Local port storage fees;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 119-120: code points 1-0
\item Tariffs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 120-121: code points 1-0
\item Value-added tax;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 121-122: code points 1-0
\item Local customizing costs;% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 122-123: code points 1-0
\item Domestic transportation costs from ports to cities.% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 123-123: code points 1-57
\end{itemize}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 116-123: code points 1-57

Table 20.10 breaks down how different elements that go into choosing the best type of vehicle for a public-transport system affect the overall vehicle price.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 125-127: code points 1-0

\tabletitle{10}{Cost of each vehicle element as a percentage of impact to total vehicle cost}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:cost-of-each-vehicle-element-as-a-percentage-of-impact-to-total-vehicle-cost}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries & \color{gray75}\bfseries Percent of Total Vehicle Price& \color{gray75}\bfseries & \color{gray75}\bfseries & \color{gray75}\bfseries Costs as a Percent Additional to Total Vehicle Price& \color{gray75}\bfseries  \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Passenger Capacity (type of vehicle)&
	\color{gray50}Chassis&
	\color{gray50}Body&
	\color{gray50}Total&
	\color{gray50}Low Floor&
	\color{gray50}Air Conditioning\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}40 (mini)&
	\color{gray50}50\%&
	\color{gray50}50\%&
	\color{gray50}100\%&
	\color{gray50}4.5&
	\color{gray50}12.5\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}53 (midi)&
	\color{gray50}50\%&
	\color{gray50}50\%&
	\color{gray50}100\%&
	\color{gray50}4.25&
	\color{gray50}12\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}75 (conventional)&
	\color{gray50}55\%&
	\color{gray50}45\%&
	\color{gray50}100\%&
	\color{gray50}4&
	\color{gray50}11.5\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}120 (articulated)&
	\color{gray50}60\%&
	\color{gray50}40\%&
	\color{gray50}100\%&
	\color{gray50}2&
	\color{gray50}11.5\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 127-170: code points 1-9

Table 20.11 provides a summary of vehicle-cost estimation based on technology types and location of manufacturer. However, these costs could be significantly underestimated, particularly in the case of Africa, which has limited proximate vehicle-manufacturing capability, high financing costs, and high duties and value-added taxes.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 172-176: code points 1-0

\tabletitle{11}{Vehicle costs for standard 12 meter bus}
\label{chapter:vehicles:table:vehicle-costs-for-standard-12-meter-bus}
\halign to 30\tablemodule{%
	\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=18\tablemodule#}\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}&
	\hbox to 0.5\tablemodule{}\vtop{\sffamily\footnotesize\noindent\hsize=5\tablemodule#}\cr
	\color{gray75}\bfseries Vehicle type& \color{gray75}\bfseries Purchase cost (US\$)& \color{gray75}\bfseries Percentage \cr
	\noalign{\vskip 1mm} \hline \noalign{\vskip 2mm} 
	\color{gray50}Diesel&
	\color{gray50}Baseline range of \$200,000 to \$600,000; depends on where the vehicle is manufactured and if it is high-floor or low-floor&
	\color{gray50}-\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}CNG, LPG buses&
	\color{gray50}\$20,000 to \$150,000 more than a comparable standard diesel bus&
	\color{gray50}5-50\% more than diesel\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Hybrid-electric buses&
	\color{gray50}\$100,000 to \$220,000 more than a comparable standard diesel bus&
	\color{gray50}33-72\% more than diesel\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}	\color{gray50}Fuel-cell buses&
	\color{gray50}\$800,000+ more than a comparable standard diesel bus&
	\color{gray50}400+\% more than diesel\cr
	\noalign{\vskip 2mm 
}}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 176-197: code points 1-9

Sources: Adapted from IEA, 2002, p. 200; EESI; NBRTI; FTA; EMBARQ; BYD Brazil; and publictransport.about.com\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 199-199: code points 1-108

Determining an aggregate cost might be difficult, considering there are several determining factors involved. However, it is advisable for BRT project managers to communicate with local vehicle manufacturers throughout the process, as this will allow for a comparison of all price options pertinent to vehicle choice.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 201-204: code points 1-7

In practical terms, a joint work effort will be required between system operational design and the business plan. An iterative process will help to find an optimal vehicle technology solution that both meets a high-level of customer comfort as well as achieves cost-effectiveness.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2010-vehicle-costs.src: lines 206-208: code points 1-78

\section{11}{Bibliography}
\label{volume:technology:chapter:vehicles:section:bibliography}
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 1-36: code points 1-35

Brown, L. "Supermarkets and service stations now competing for grain." \emphasis{Eco-Economy Update} 5 (2006).\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 3-3: code points 1-101

CITEPA. \emphasis{Analysis of the Transport Sector.} 2005. http:\slash{}\slash{}www.citepa.org\slash{}en\slash{}air-and-climate\slash{}analysis-by-sector\slash{}transports.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 5-5: code points 1-121

CVTF. "An assessment of the emissions performance of alternative and conventional fuels." UK Department of Trade and Industry, Clean Vehicles Task Force, London, 2000.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 7-8: code points 1-63

Deluchi, M. \emphasis{A lifecycle emissions model (LEM): Lifecycle emissions from transportation fuels, motor vehicles, transportation modes, electricity use, heating and cooking fuels, and materials.} Davis: University of California at Davis, 2003.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 10-13: code points 1-29

Economist. "The Brazilian Amazon: how green was my valley." \emphasis{Economist}, April 27, 2006.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 15-15: code points 1-88

Hadley, J. "Hybrid buses’ fuel economy promises don’t materialize: Older models have gotten better mpg." \emphasis{Seattle Post-Intelligencer}, December 12, 2004.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 17-18: code points 1-54

IEA. "Biofuels for Transport-An international perspective." International Energy Agency, Paris, 2004.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 20-20: code points 1-101

International Energy Agency. "IEA Agreement on the Production and Utilization of Hydrogen." Annual Report, International Energy Agency, 2002.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 22-23: code points 1-42

Metschies, G., A. Friedrich, F. Heinen, and J. Peters. "International fuel prices." GTZ, Eschborn, 2007.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 25-26: code points 1-5

Planet Ark. "Ethanol, Biodiesel eats into US corn Stockpiles." \emphasis{Planet Ark}, 2006.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 28-28: code points 1-82

Science. "The hydrogen backlash." 305 (August 2004): 958-961.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 30-30: code points 1-61

Wangwongwatana, S. "Use of appropriate technology for air quality solutions." \emphasis{Presentation at the Air and Waste Management Association national conference.} San Diego, 2003.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 32-33: code points 1-75

Wright, L., and L. Fulton. "Climate change mitigation and transport in developing countries." \emphasis{Transport Reviews} 25, no. 6 (2005): 691-717.\par
% @ guide/20-vehicles/2011-bibliography.src: lines 35-36: code points 1-35

